Late Roman army

The Late Roman army is the term used to denote the military forces of the Roman Empire from the accession of Emperor Diocletian in 284 until the Empire's definitive division into Eastern and Western halves in 395. A few decades afterwards, the Western army disintegrated as the Western empire collapsed. The East Roman army, on the other hand, continued intact and essentially unchanged until its reorganization by themes and transformation into the Byzantine army in the 7th century. The term "late Roman army" is often used to include the East Roman army.

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A.H.M. Jones

Arnold Hugh Martin (A.H.M.) Jones (9 March 1904 - 9 April 1970) was a prominent 20th century British historian of classical antiquity, particularly of the later Roman Empire.

Agathias

Agathias or Agathias Scholasticus (c. AD 536-582/594), of Myrina, an Aeolian city in western Asia Minor, was a Greek poet and the historian who is a principal source for that part of the reign of Justinian I covered in his history.

Alamanni

The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river (Germany). One of the earliest references to them is the cognomen Alamannicus assumed by Roman Emperor Caracalla, who ruled the Roman Empire from 211–17 and claimed thereby to be their defeater.^[1] The nature of this alliance and their previous tribal affiliations remain uncertain. The alliance was aggressive in nature, attacking the Roman province of Germania Superior whenever it could. Generally it broadly followed the example of the Franks, the first Germanic tribal alliance, which had stopped the Romans from penetrating north of the lower Rhine and subsequently invaded the Roman province of Germania Inferior.

Albano Laziale

Albano Laziale is a comune in the province of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Latium, central Italy. It is also a suburb of Rome, which is 25 km distant. It is bounded by other communes of Castel Gandolfo, Rocca di Papa, Ariccia and Ardea.

Ammianus Marcellinus

Ammianus Marcellinus (325/330–after 391) was a fourth-century Roman historian. His is the second-to-last major historical account written during Antiquity (the last was written by Procopius). His work chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from 96 to 378, although only the sections covering the period 353–378 are extant.^[1]

Ancient Roman units of measurement

The ancient Roman units of measurement were built on the Hellenic system with Egyptian, Hebrew, and Mesopotamian influences. The Roman units were comparatively consistent and well documented.

Angon

The angon (Medieval Greek ἄγγων, Old High German ango, Old English anga “hook, point, spike”) was a type of javelin used during the Early Middle Ages by the Franks and other Germanic peoples including the Anglo-Saxons. It was similar to, and probably derived from, the pilum used by the Roman army and had a barbed head and long narrow socket or shank made of iron mounted on a wooden haft.^{[1] [2]}

Antonine Plague

The Antonine Plague, AD 165-180, also known as the Plague of Galen, who described it, was an ancient pandemic, either of smallpox^[1] or measles,^[2] brought back to the Roman Empire by troops returning from campaigns in the Near East. The epidemic claimed the lives of two Roman emperors—Lucius Verus, who died in 169, and his co-regent who ruled until 180, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, whose family name, Antoninus, was given to the epidemic. The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day in Rome, one quarter of those infected.^[3] Total deaths have been estimated at five million.^[4] The disease killed as much as one-third of the population in some areas and decimated the Roman army.^[5]

Antoninianus

The antoninianus was a coin used during the Roman Empire thought to have been valued at 2 denarii. It was initially silver, but was slowly debased to bronze. The coin was introduced by Caracalla in early 215 and was a silver coin similar to the denarius except that it was slightly larger and featured the emperor wearing a radiate crown, indicating that it was valued at twice as much. Antoniniani depicting females (usually the emperor's wife), featured the bust resting upon a crescent moon^[1].

Arch of Constantine

The Arch of Constantine (Italian: Arco di Costantino) is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was erected to commemorate Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312. Dedicated in 315, it is the latest of the existing triumphal arches in Rome, from which it differs by spolia, the extensive re-use of parts of earlier buildings.

Augustus

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 31 BC until his death in AD 14.^{[note 1]} Born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, he was adopted by his great-uncle Gaius Julius Caesar in 44 BC, and between then and 31 BC was officially named Gaius Julius Caesar. In 27 BC the Senate awarded him the honorific Augustus ("the revered one"), and thus consequently he was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus.^{[note 2]} Because of the various names he bore, it is common to call him Octavius when referring to events between 63 and 44 BC, Octavian (or Octavianus) when referring to events between 44 and 27 BC, and Augustus when referring to events after 27 BC. In Greek sources, Augustus is known as Ὀκτάβιος (Octavius), Καῖσαρ (Caesar), Αὔγουστος (Augustus), or Σεβαστός (Sebastos), depending on context.

Aurelian

Lucius Domitius Aurelianus^[1] (September 9, 214 or 215 –September or October 275), known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270–275), was the second of several highly successful "soldier-emperors" who helped the Roman Empire regain its power during the latter part of the third century and the beginning of the fourth.

Aurelian Walls

The Aurelian Walls (Italian: Mura aureliane) is a line of city walls built between 271 and 275 in Rome, Italy, during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus.

Auxiliaries (Roman military)

Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports") formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC–284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. By the 2nd century, the auxilia contained the same number of infantry as the legions and in addition provided almost all the Roman army's cavalry and more specialised troops (especially light cavalry and archers). The auxilia thus represented three-fifths of Rome's regular land forces at that time. Like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts.

Barbarian

Barbarian is a term for an uncivilized person, often used pejoratively, either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage. In idiomatic or figurative usage, a "barbarian" may also be an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person.^[1]

Barbarians

Barbarian is a term for an uncivilized person, often used pejoratively, either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage. In idiomatic or figurative usage, a "barbarian" may also be an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person.^[1]

Bastarnae

The Bastarnae or Basternae were an ancient tribal group of probably mixed Celtic and Germanic origin which, between not later than 200 BC and until at least 300 AD, inhabited the region between the eastern Carpathian mountains and the Dnieper river (corresponding to the modern Republic of Moldova and western part of southern Ukraine). A branch of the Bastarnae, called the Peucini by Greco-Roman writers, occupied the region north of the Danube river delta.

Bastion

A bastion is a structure projecting outward from the main enclosure of a fortification, situated in both corners of a straight wall (termed curtain), facilitating active defense against assaulting troops. It allows the defenders of the fort to cover adjacent bastions and curtains with defensive fire.

Battle of Adrianople

The Battle of Adrianople (August 9, 378), sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Roman Emperor Valens and Gothic rebels (largely Thervings as well as Greutungs, non-Gothic Alans, and various local rebels) led by Fritigern. The battle took place about 8 miles or 13 kilometers north of Adrianople (modern Edirne in European Turkey, near the border with Greece and Bulgaria) in the Roman province of Thracia and ended with an overwhelming victory for the Goths.^[1][2]

Battle of Edessa

The Battle of Edessa took place between the armies of the Roman Empire under the command of Emperor Valerian and Sassanid forces under King Shapur I in 259. In this battle, the Sassanids crushed the entire Roman army, while suffering minimal losses.

Battle of Naissus

The Battle of Naissus (268 or 269 AD) was the defeat of a Gothic coalition by the Roman Empire under Emperor Gallienus (or Claudius II) near Naissus (Niš in present-day Serbia). The events around the invasion and the battle are an important part of the history of the Crisis of the Third Century.

Battle of Strasbourg

The Battle of Strasbourg, also known as the Battle of Argentoratum, was fought in 357 between the Late Roman army under the Caesar (deputy emperor) Julian and the Alamanni tribal confederation led by the joint paramount king Chnodomar. The battle took place near Strasbourg (Alsace, France), called Argentoratum in Ammianus Marcellinus' account, Argentorate in the Tabula Peutingeriana (Section 2).

Battle of the Milvian Bridge

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle.

Budapest

Budapest (pronounced /ˈbuːdəpɛst/, also /ˈbʊdəpɛst/ or /ˈbjuːdəpɛst/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈbudɒpɛʃt]  ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital of Hungary.^[1] As the largest city of Hungary, it serves as the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation center^[2] and is considered an important hub in Central Europe.^[3] In 2009, Budapest had 1,712,210 inhabitants,^[4] down from a mid-1980s peak of 2.1 million. The Budapest Commuter Area (or Greater Budapest) is home to 3,271,110 people.^[5][6] The city covers an area of 525 square kilometres (202.7 sq mi)^[7] within the city limits. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river Danube with a unification on 17 November 1873 of right (west)-bank Buda and Óbuda with left (east)-bank Pest.^[7][8]

Byzantine army

The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces, serving alongside the Byzantine navy. A direct descendant of the Roman and older Hellenistic Greek armies, the Byzantine army maintained a similar level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization. It was among the most effective armies of western Eurasia for much of the Middle Ages.

Caracalla

Caracalla (April 4, 188 – April 8, 217. Caracallus), born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later called Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus, was the eldest son of Septimius Severus and Roman Emperor from 211 to 217.^[1] He was one of the most nefarious of Roman emperors.^[2][3] Caracalla's reign was notable for:

Carpi (Dacian tribe)

The Carpi or Carpiani were an ancient tribe (perhaps Dacian-speaking), that resided, between not later than ca. AD 100 and until at least ca. AD 300, in the eastern Carpathian Mountains, and in what became later the Principality of Moldavia (modern eastern Romania, Moldova, and small neighboring areas of Ukraine). The Carpi were one of the tribes of Dacia that apparently escaped subjugation by the Roman Empire when it annexed the central part of Dacia in AD 106. However, it is possible that the Carpi did not enter the Dacian region until (and maybe because of) the Dacian Wars (101-106), as they are not mentioned in the classical sources until the mid 2nd century.

Castle

A castle (from Latin castellum) is a defensive structure associated with the Middle Ages, found in Europe and the Middle East. The precise meaning of "castle" is debated by scholars, but it is usually considered to be the "private fortified residence" of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a fortress, which was not a home, or a fortified town, which was a public defence. The term has been popularly applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls and arrowslits, were commonplace.

Caucasian Iberians

The Caucasian Iberians was a Greco-Roman designation for ancient Georgians, Ibero-Caucasian people (South Caucasian or Kartvelians) who inhabited the east and southeast of the Transcaucasus region in prehistoric and historic times. ^[1] Ancient Iberians are identified as modern eastern Georgians who have originated from the early Georgian state of Iberia-Karli. ^{[2] [3]}Caucasian Iberians should not be confused with some of the ancient inhabitants of the Roman Hispania, the Iberians of the Iberian Peninsula, or today's Spanish and Portuguese who are also referred to as Iberians.

Caucasus

The Caucasus or Caucas (also referred to as Caucasia,^[1] Adyghe: Къэфкъас, Armenian: Կովկաս, Azerbaijani: Qafqaz, Georgian: კავკასია, Russian: Кавка́з, Ossetic: Кавказ, Chechen: Ковказ) is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, including Europe's highest mountain (Mount Elbrus).

Centuria

Centuria (Latin plural centuriae) is a Latin substantive from the stem centum (a hundred), denoting units consisting of (originally only approximately) 100 men. It also denotes a Roman unit of land area: 1 centuria = 100 heredia. It is sometimes anglicized as century.

Centurion

A centurion (Latin: centurio; Greek: κεντυρίων), also hecatontarch in Greek sources (Greek: ἑκατόνταρχος or, in Byzantine times, κένταρχος) was a professional officer of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. Most centurions commanded 83 men despite the commonly assumed 100, but senior centurions commanded cohorts, or took senior staff roles in their legion.

Chain mail

Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille or chainmaille) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh.

Claudius II Gothicus

Marcus Aurelius Claudius (May 10, 213 - January, 270), often referred to as Claudius Gothicus or Claudius II, was a Roman Emperor. He ruled the Roman Empire for less than two years (268 - 270), but during that brief time he managed to obtain some successes. He was later given divine status.

Clibanarii

The Clibanarii or Klibanophoroi (Greek: κλιβανοφόροι, meaning “camp oven-bearers” from the Greek word κλίβανος meaning "camp oven" or "metallic furnace") were a Sassanid Persian, late Roman and Byzantine military unit of heavy armored horsemen. Similar to the cataphracti, the horsemen themselves and their horses were fully armoured. There are several theories to the origins of this name, one being that the men were literally nicknamed “camp oven bearers” (due to the amount of armour they wore that the troops heat up very quickly in the heat of battle) or that the name is derived from Persian word griwbanwar or griva-pana-bara meaning "neck-guard wearer"

Comes

Comes (pronounced [ˈkoʊmiz] "KOH-meez", plural comites pronounced [ˈkɒmɪˌtiz] "KOM-i-teez") is the Latin word for companion, either individually or as a member of a collective known as comitatus (compare comitatenses), especially the suite of a magnate, in some cases large and/or formal enough to have a specific name, such as a cohors amicorum. The word comes derives from com- "with" + ire "go."

Comitatenses

Comitatenses is the Latin plural of comitatensis, originally the adjective derived from comitatus ('company, party, suite'; in this military context it came to the novel meaning of 'the field army'), itself rooting in Comes ('companion', but hence specific historical meanings, military and civilian).

Composite bow

A composite bow is a bow made from disparate materials laminated together, usually applied under tension. Different materials are used in order to take advantage of the properties of each material.

Conceşti

Conceşti is a commune in Botoşani County, Romania. It's a 1000 people village and the main occupation of its habitants is agriculture (growing plants like corn, potatoes, animals- cows, sheeps, rabbits and birds like ducks, chickens, etc.). Some of the people of Concesti work in the factories in Darabani which provides them with some extra money as they are real poor. A big part of the village's youth is gone abroad in countries like Italy and Spain where they hope to have a better life.

Constantine I

Caesar Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus^[3] (27 February c. 272^[2] – 22 May 337), commonly known in English as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Christians) Saint Constantine (pronounced /ˈkɒnstəntaɪn/ or /ˈkɒnstəntiːn/), was Roman emperor from 306, and the sole holder of that office from 324 until his death in 337. Best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor,^{[notes 1]} Constantine reversed the persecutions of his predecessor, Diocletian, and issued (with his co-emperor Licinius) the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious toleration throughout the empire.

Constantinople

Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Kōnstantinoúpolis, or ἡ Πόλις hē Pólis, Latin: Constantinopolis, in formal Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه Kostantiniyye) was the imperial capital (Gr: Βασιλεύουσα, Basileúousa) of the Roman Empire (330–395), the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). Strategically located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara at the point where Europe meets Asia, Byzantine Constantinople had been the capital of a Christian empire, successor to ancient Greece and Rome. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest^[1] and wealthiest city.

Constantius Chlorus

Flavius Valerius Constantius^[1] (March 31 c. 250 – July 25, 306), also Constantius I, was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305–306). He was commonly called Chlorus (the Pale)^[2] an epithet given to him by Byzantine historians. He was the father of Constantine the Great and initiator of the Constantinian dynasty.

Constitutio Antoniniana

The Constitutio Antoniniana (Latin: "Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus") (also called Edict of Caracalla) was an edict issued in 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla. The law declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in Empire were given the same rights as Roman women were.

Contus

The kontos was the Greek name for a type of long wooden cavalry lance used by Iranian, especially Achaemenid succesors' cavalry, most notably cataphracts. It was also used by the Germanic warriors of the south as a pike. A shift in the terminology used to describe Sarmatian weapons indicates the kontos was developed in the early-mid 1st century AD from shorter spear-type weapons (which were described using the generic terms for "spear" - longche or hasta - by Greek and Roman sources, respectively), though such a description may have existed before the Battle of Carrhae, in which Parthian cataphracts, in tandem with light horse archers, annihilated a Roman army of over three times their numbers.

Corpus Iuris Civilis

The Corpus Juris (or Iuris) Civilis ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name^[1] for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I, Eastern Roman Emperor.

Count

A count is a nobleman in European countries; his wife is a countess. The word count came into English from the French comte, itself from Latin comes—in its accusative comitem—meaning "companion", and later "companion of the emperor, delegate of the emperor". The British equivalent is an earl (whose wife is also a "countess", for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term). Alternative names for the "Count" rank in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as Hakushaku during the Japanese Imperial era.

Crenellations

A battlement (also called a crenellation) in defensive architecture such as that of city walls or castles, comprises a parapet (i.e. a short wall), in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the discharge of arrows or other missiles. These cut-out portions form crenels (also known as carnels, embrasures, loops or wheelers). The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons (also cops or kneelers). Battlements often have openings between the supporting corbels, through which stones or burning objects could be dropped on attackers; these are known as machicolations. A wall with battlements is said to be crenellated or embattled. Battlements may have protected walkways (chemin de ronde) behind them.

Crossbows

A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts or quarrels. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a siege engine resembling a crossbow in mechanism and appearance.^[1]

Cursus publicus

The cursus publicus (Greek: δημόσιος δρόμος, "public road/course") was the state-run courier and transportation service of the Roman Empire, later inherited by the Byzantine Empire. It was created by Emperor Augustus to transport messages, officials, and tax revenues from one province to another. The service was still fully functioning in the first half of the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, when the historian Procopius charges Emperor Justinian with the dismantlement of most of its sections, with the exception of the route leading to the Persian border.

Dacia

In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land in East-Central Europe inhabited by the Dacians. Ancient Greeks called the same people "Getae". This region had in the middle the Carpathian Mountains and was bounded approximately by the Danube (then known as Istros) or sometimes by the Balkan Mountains (then known as Hemus) to the south (Dobruja, a region south of the Danube, was a core area where the Getae lived and interacted with the Ancient Greeks), Black Sea (then known as Pontus Euxinus) and Dniester (then known as Tyras) to the east (but several Dacian settlements are recorded in part of area between Dniester and Southern Bug), and Tisza (then known as Tisia) to the west (but at times included areas between Tisza and middle Danube). It thus corresponds to modern countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as smaller parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine.

Dalmatia

Dalmatia (Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages), is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and is situated in Croatia. It spreads between the island of Rab in the northwest and the Bay of Kotor, in Montenegro, in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south. The Dalmatian dog gets its name from Dalmatia.

Decimation (Roman army)

Decimation (Latin: decimatio; decem = "ten") was a form of military discipline used by officers in the Roman Army to punish mutinous or cowardly soldiers. The word decimation is derived from Latin meaning "removal of a tenth."^[1]

Defence-in-depth (Roman military)

Defence-in-depth is the term used by American political analyst Edward Luttwak (born 1942) to describe his theory of the defensive strategy employed by the Late Roman army in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.

Devil's Dykes

The Devil's Dykes (Hungarian: Ördögárok) , also known as the Csörsz árka ("Csörsz Ditch") or the Limes Sarmatiae (Latin for "Sarmatian border"), are a several lines of Roman fortifications built mostly during the reign of Constantine I (312-337). The fortifications consisted of a series of defensive earthen ramparts-and-ditches surrounding the plain of the Tisia (Tisza) river. They stretched from Aquincum (within modern Budapest) eastwards along the line of the northern Carpathian mountains to the vicinity of Debrecen, and then southwards to Viminacium (near modern Stari Kostolac). They were probably designed to protect the Iazyges, a Sarmatian tribe that inhabited the Tisza plain and had been reduced to tributary status by Constantine, from incursions by the surrounding Goths and Gepids.^[1]

Dio Cassius

Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus^[1][2] (Greek: Δίων ὁ Κάσσιος, c. AD 155 or 163/164^[3] to after 229), known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio (Dione. lib) was a Roman consul and a noted historian writing in Greek. Dio published a history of Rome in 80 volumes, beginning with the legendary arrival of Aeneas in Italy through the subsequent founding of Rome and then to 229; a period of about 1,400 years. Of the 80 books, written over 22 years, many survive into the modern age intact or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history.

Diocletian

Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. 22 December 244^[3] – 3 December 311^[5]), born Diocles (Greek: Διοκλῆς) and commonly known as Diocletian (pronounced /ˌdаɪ.ɵˈkliːʃən/), was Roman Emperor from 20 November 284 to 1 May 305. Born to a Dalmatian family of low status, he rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was acclaimed emperor by the army. A brief confrontation with Carus' other surviving son Carinus at the Battle of the Margus removed the only other claimant to the title. With his ascension to power, he ended the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian appointed fellow-officer Maximian his Augustus, his senior co-emperor, in 285. He delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as Caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. In campaigns against Sarmatian and Danubian tribes (285–90), the Alamanni (288), and usurpers in Egypt (297–98), Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of threats to his power. In 299, Diocletian led negotiations with Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and achieved a lasting and favorable peace.

Diptych

A diptych (pronounced /ˈdɪptɪk/, from the Greek δίπτυχον, di- "two" + ptychē "fold") is any object with two flat plates attached at a hinge. Devices of this form were quite popular in the ancient world, wax tablets being coated with wax on inner faces, for recording notes and for measuring time and direction. The term is also used figuratively for a thematically-linked sequence of two books.

Duke

A duke is a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch, and historically controlling a duchy. The title comes from the Latin Dux Bellorum, which had the sense of "military commander" and was employed by both the Germanic peoples themselves and by the Roman authors covering them to refer to their war leaders.

East Roman army

The East Roman army refers to the army of the Eastern section of the Roman empire, from the empire's definitive split in 395 AD to the army's reorganisation by themes after the permanent loss of Syria, Palestine and Egypt to the Arabs in the 7th century. The East Roman army is thus the intermediate phase between the Late Roman army of the 4th century and the Byzantine army of the 7th century onwards.

Edward Gibbon

Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737^{[notes 1]}  – January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. The Decline and Fall is known principally for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open denigration of organised religion, though the extent of this is disputed by some critics.^[1]

Edward Luttwak

Edward Nicolae Luttwak (born 1942) is an American military strategist and historian who has published works on military strategy, history and international relations.

Egypt

Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ( listen); Arabic: مصر‎ Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ]  ( listen); Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Thereby, Egypt is a transcontinental country, and is considered to be a major power in North Africa, Mediterranean Region, African continent, Nile Basin, Islamic World and the Red Sea. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.

Equestrian order

The Roman equestrian order (Latin: ordo equester) constituted the lower of the two aristocratic classes of ancient Rome, ranking below the patricians (patricii), an hereditary caste that monopolised political power during the regal era (to 501 BC) and during the early Republic (to 338 BC). A member of the order was known as an eques (plural: equites). Equites in Latin has the general meaning of cavalry (from equus = "horse"), but in this context carries the specific meaning of "knight".

Flavius Stilicho

Flavius Stilicho (occasionally written as Stilico) (ca. 359 A.D. – August 22, 408 A.D.) was a high-ranking general (magister militum), Patrician and Consul of the Western Roman Empire, notably of semi-barbarian birth.

Franks

The Franks or Frankish people (Latin: Franci or gens Francorum) were a West Germanic tribal confederation first attested in the third century as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a kingdom on Roman-held soil that was acknowledged by the Romans after 357. In the climate of the collapse of imperial authority in the West, the Frankish tribes were united under the Merovingians and conquered all of Gaul save Septimania in the 6th century. The Salian political elite would be one of the most active forces in spreading Christianity over western Europe.

Gallienus

Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus^[1] (c. 218 - 268) ruled the Roman Empire as co-emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and then as the sole Roman Emperor from 260 to 268. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was unable to keep much of his realm from seceding.

Gepids

The Gepids (Latin: Gepida; Old English: Gifð; possibly Proto-Germanic: *Gibiðaz, "giver"^[1] or gepanta, see below) were an East Germanic Gothic tribe most famous in history for defeating the Huns after the death of Attila. The state of the Gepids was commonly known as Gepidia^[2] or Kingdom of the Gepids, whose territory is composed of parts of modern day Romania, Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia.

German General Staff

The German General Staff (Großer Generalstab, literally Great General Staff) was an institution whose rise and development gave the German military a decided advantage over its adversaries. The Staff amounted to its best "weapon" for nearly a century and a half.

Gladius

Gladius is a Latin word for sword. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those used by the Greeks. From the 3rd century BC, the Romans adopted swords similar to those used by the Celtiberians and others during the early part of the conquest of Hispania.^{[citation needed]} This kind of sword was known as the Gladius Hispaniensis, or "Hispanic Sword." It was once thought that they were similar to the later Mainz types, but the evidence now suggests that this was not the case.^[1] Rather, these early blades followed a slightly different pattern, being longer and narrower, and were probably those that Polybius^[2] considered good for both cut and thrust. Later extant Gladii are now known as the Mainz, Fulham, and Pompei types. In the late Roman period, Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus^[3] refers to swords called semispathae (or semispathia) and spathae, for both of which he appears to consider gladius an appropriate term.

Goths

The Goths (Gothic: *Gutans^{[citation needed]}) were a heterogeneous East Germanic tribe. The historian Jordanes claimed that the Goths arrived from semi-legendary Scandza, believed to be somewhere in modern Götaland (Sweden), and that a Gothic population had crossed the Baltic Sea before the 2nd century, lending their name to the region of Gothiscandza, believed to be the lower Vistula region in modern Pomerelia (Poland). The archaeological Wielbark (Willenberg) culture is associated with the arrival of the Goths and their subsequent agglomeration with the indigenous population. But the reliability of Jordanes, who wrote in the 6th century, is disputed,^[1] and there is also no archaeological evidence for a substantial emigration from Scandinavia.^[2]

Great helm

The great helm or heaume, also called pot helm, bucket helm and barrel helm, of the High Middle Ages arose in the late twelfth century in the context of the crusades and remained in use until the fourteenth century. They were used by knights and heavy infantry in most European armies between about 1220 to 1540 AD.^[1]

Hadrian's Wall

Hadrian's Wall (Latin: Vallum Aelium) is a stone and timber fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of what is now northern England. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall in what is now Scotland. Hadrian's Wall is the better known of the two because its physical remains are more evident today.

Heddernheim

Heddernheim is a district or Stadtteil of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. It is part of the Ortsbezirk Nord-West, and is subdivided into the Stadtbezirke Heddernheim-Ost and Heddernheim-West. Heddernheim was first mentioned in documents in 801 as Phetterenheim.

Herculiani

The Jovians (Latin: Ioviani) and Herculians (Latin: Herculiani) were the senior palatine imperial guard units of the Emperors of the late Roman Empire from the 290s until the 7th century.

Historical reenactment

Historical reenactment is a type of roleplay in which participants attempt to recreate some aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment of Pickett's Charge at the Great Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period.

Illyrian emperors

The "Illyriciani" or "Illyrian emperors". These are Roman emperors called Illyriciani^[1][2][3] due to being born in the province of Illyricum^[4][5][6].Some were called Barracks emperors and the emperors of the Tetrarchy^[7].In the second and third centuries, Illyricum was famous for its soldiers: being less Romanized than other regions of the Empire, it was one of the main purveyors of troops for the Roman army. One of the largest concentration of troops (twelve legions at its peak in the mid-third century) was on the Danube. It was the policy of some of the "Barracks emperors", especially Gallienus^{[citation needed]} (260-268)^[8], to promote able soldiers to high-ranking military posts. This means that, instead of commanders with an aristocratic background (members of the Roman Senate or the equestrian order), many soldiers of more humble origins^[9], even mere peasants, began to be made generals— which meant that they could become emperors by being raised to power by their legions.

Illyrian language

The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-European languages that were spoken in the western part of the Balkans^[1] in former times by groups identified as Illyrians: Ardiaei, Delmatae, Pannonii, Autariates, Taulanti (see List of Illyrian tribes). Some sound-changes from Proto-Indo-European to Illyrian and other language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian languages, but because there are no^[2] examples of ancient Illyrian literature surviving (aside from the Messapian writings if they can be considered Illyrian), it is difficult to clarify its place within the Indo-European language family. Because of the uncertainty^[3], most sources provisionally place Illyrian on its own branch of Indo-European, though its relation to other languages, ancient and modern, continues to be studied.

Illyrians

The Illyrians (Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυριοί; Latin: Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of tribes who inhabited the Western Balkans during classical antiquity. The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area of the former Yugoslavia and Albania, between the Adriatic sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of Vjosë river in the south^[1][2].The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from Periplus or Coastal passage an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC.^[3]

Imperial helmet

The Imperial helmet-type (known as the Weisenau type in Germany) was a type of helmet worn by Roman legionaries; it replaced the Coolus type, and constituted the final evolutionary stage of the legionary helmet (galea).

Indo-European

     Countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages      Countries with an IE minority language with official status

International Standard Book Number

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique^[1] numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, now Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin,^[2] for the booksellers and stationers W.H. Smith and others in 1966.^[3]

Ioviani

The Jovians (Latin: Ioviani) and Herculians (Latin: Herculiani) were the senior palatine imperial guard units of the Emperors of the late Roman Empire from the 290s until the 7th century.

Isauria

Isauria (Greek: Ισαυρία), in ancient geography, is a rugged isolated district in the interior of South Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods, but generally covering much of what is now Konya/Bozkir province of Turkey, or the core of the Taurus Mountains. It derives its name from the contentious Isaurian tribe and twin settlements Isaura Palaea (Ίσαυρα Παλαιά, Latin: Isaura Vetus, "Old Isaura") and Isaura Nea (Ίσαυρα Νέα, Latin: Isaura Nova, "New Isaura"). Isaurian marauders were fiercely independent mountain people who created havoc in neighboring districts under Macedonian and Roman occupations.

Istanbul Archaeological Museum

The Istanbul Archaeology Museums (Turkish: İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri) is an archeological museum, located in the Eminönü district of Istanbul, Turkey, near Gülhane Park and Topkapı Palace.

John Lydus

Joannes Laurentius Lydus (Greek: Ἰωάννης Λαυρέντιος ὁ Λυδός) or John the Lydian was a 6th century Byzantine administrator and writer on antiquarian subjects. His works are of interest for specific data about classical events.

Laeti

Laeti, the plural form of laetus, was a term used in the late Roman empire to denote communities of barbari ("barbarians", literally "babblers" - of outlandish tongues - i.e. foreigners, people from outside the Empire) permitted to, and granted land to, settle on imperial territory on condition that they provide recruits for the Roman military.^[1] The term laetus is of uncertain origin, but most likely derives from a Germanic word meaning "serf" or "half-free colonist".^[2] Other authorities suggest the term was of Latin, Celtic or even Iranian origin.^[3]

Lamellar armour

Lamellar armour is a kind of personal armour consisting of small plates (lames) which are laced together in parallel rows. Lamellar armour evolved from scale armour, ^[1] from which it differs by not needing a backing for the scales. It is made from pieces of lacquered leather, iron, steel or horn held together with silk, leather thongs, or cotton thread. When the lames are made of leather they would often be hardened by a process such as cuir bouilli or lacquering.

Legatus Augusti pro praetore

A legatus Augusti pro praetore (literally: "envoy of the emperor - acting praetor") was the official title of the governor of some imperial provinces of the Roman Empire during the Principate era, normally the larger ones or those where legions were based. Provinces were denoted imperial if their governor was selected by the emperor, in contrast to senatorial provinces, whose governors (called proconsuls) were elected by the Roman Senate.

Legio II Parthica

Legio secunda Parthica (Second Parthian legion) was a Roman legion levied by Emperor Septimius Severus in 197, for his campaign against the Parthian Empire, hence the cognomen Parthica. The legion was still active in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion's symbol were a bull and centaur.

Legions

The Roman legion (from Latin legio "military levy, conscription," from legere — "to choose") is a term that can apply both as a translation of legio ("conscription" or "army") to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of the ancient Roman army in the period of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In this latter meaning, it consisted of several cohorts of heavy infantry known as legionaries. It was almost always accompanied by one or more attached units of auxiliaries, who were not Roman citizens and provided cavalry, ranged troops and skirmishers to complement the legion's heavy infantry.

Limitanei

The limitanei, meaning "the soldiers on the frontlines" (from the Latin phrase limes romanus, denoting the boundaries of the Roman Empire), were the frontier garrisons of the Late Roman army and subsequently the Byzantine Empire. They were light infantry similar to spear men and served as a policing force to patrol Rome's distant, far-flung border regions and when necessary, to delay advancing enemy forces until counter-attacks could be arranged. They are historically significant in that their appearance, as part of a plan of military reforms enacted in the late 3rd century, was able to extend the life of the Roman Empire^{[citation needed]} by pushing back the the great barbarian invasions of late antiquity.,