Doctorate

A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries represents the highest level of formal study or research in a given field. In some countries it also refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to practice in a specific profession, such as law or medicine. The best-known example of the former is the Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy), while examples of the latter include the U.S. degree of Doctor of Medicine and the Dutch Professional Doctorate in Engineering.

Additional info

Academic degree

A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study.

Academic journal

An academic journal is a peer-reviewed periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as forums for the introduction and presentation for scrutiny of new research, and the critique of existing research. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, and book reviews. Academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are usually called professional magazines.

Apprenticeship

Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill. Apprentices (or in early modern usage "prentices") or protégés build their careers from apprenticeships. Most of their training is done on the job while working for an employer who helps the apprentices learn their trade, in exchange for their continuing labour for an agreed period after they become skilled. Theoretical education may also be involved, informally via the workplace and/or by attending vocational schools while still being paid by the employer.

Argentina

Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina, pronounced [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.

Associate's degree

An associate degree is an academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges, four-year universities, business colleges and some bachelor's degree-granting colleges/universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years.

Auditorium

An auditorium is where the audience is located to hear and watch performances at venues such as theatres. For movie theaters, the number of auditoriums is expressed as the number of screens.

Bachelor's degree

A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for four years, but can range from two to six years depending on the region of the world. It may also be the name of a "postgraduate" degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law, the Bachelor of Music, or the Bachelor of Philosophy.

Bologna process

The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords) is to create the European higher education area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention. It is named after the place it was proposed, the University of Bologna in the Italian city of Bologna, with the signing in 1999 of the Bologna declaration by Ministers of Education from 29 European countries. This was opened up to other countries signatory to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe; further governmental meetings have been held in Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005), London (2007) and Leuven (2009).

Chiropractic

Chiropractic is a health care discipline and profession that emphasizes diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine, under the hypothesis that these disorders affect general health via the nervous system.^[1] Chiropractic is controversial,^[2][3] and it is generally considered to be complementary and alternative medicine,^[4] a characterization that many chiropractors reject.^[5] The main treatment involves manual therapy, including manipulation of the spine, other joints, and soft tissues; treatment also includes exercises and health and lifestyle counseling.^[6] Traditional chiropractic assumes that a vertebral subluxation or spinal joint dysfunction interferes with the body's function and its innate intelligence,^[7] a notion that brings ridicule from mainstream science and medicine.^[8]

Church of England

The Church of England is the officially established Christian church^[2] in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the oldest among the communion's thirty-eight independent national and regional churches. The Church also extends to the Isle of Man via the Diocese of Sodor and Man, while the Channel Islands form part of the Diocese of Winchester, and a number of Anglican communities in continental Europe, the former Soviet Union, Turkey and Morocco are formed into the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, often referred to as the Commonwealth and previously as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states, all but two of which were formerly part of the British Empire. The member states co-operate within a framework of common values and goals as outlined in the Singapore Declaration.^[1] These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism and world peace.^[2]

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic /ˈtʃɛk rɨˈpʌblɪk/ (help·info)^[3] (Czech: Česká republika, pronounced [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka]  ( listen), short form Česko [ˈtʃɛskɔ]) is a country in Central Europe^[4]. The country borders Poland to the northeast, Germany to the west and northwest, Austria to the south and Slovakia to the east. The capital and largest city is Prague (Czech: Praha). The country is composed of the historic regions of Bohemia and Moravia, as well as parts of Silesia. The Czech Republic has been a member of NATO since 1999 and of the European Union since 2004. From 1 January 2009 to 1 July 2009, the Czech Republic held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union.

Denmark

Denmark (pronounced /ˈdɛnmɑrk/ ( listen); Danish: Danmark, pronounced [ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊], archaic: [ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊]) is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland (Jylland) and many islands, most notably Zealand (Sjælland), Funen (Fyn), Vendsyssel-Thy, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark has long controlled the approach to the Baltic Sea, as over water this can only take place via one of the three channels, that are also known as the "Danish straits".

Dentistry

Dentistry is the known evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the soft and hard tissues of the jaw (mandible), the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body.^[1] Dentistry is a part of stomatology. Dentistry is widely considered necessary for complete overall health. Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists.

Digital object identifier

The Digital Object Identifier (DOI) System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks.^[1] These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean the identifiers within this system; hence the use of the term alone is deprecated unless the meaning is sufficiently clear from an earlier mention or the specific context: instead it should always be used in conjunction with a specific noun. The DOI name is the identifier string that specifies a unique object (the referent) within the DOI System; the DOI syntax is the form and sequence of characters comprising any DOI name, specifically the prefix element, separator, and suffix element; and the DOI System is the functional deployment of DOI names as identifiers in computer sensible form through assignment, resolution, referent description, administration, etc. Hence DOI is not primarily a numbering system - it is primarily a globally consistent persistent identifier resolution system combined with a coherent approach to creating the identifiers, plus metadata, and a social structure to back up the persistence which is enabled by the technology.

Diplom

Diplom (from Greek Δίπλωμα diploma) is an academic degree in some European countries including Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Estonia, Croatia, Serbia, Ukraine, Belarus, Greece, Hungary and Finnland (however, only for engineers). It can be compared to Bachelor's and Master's degrees in other countries.

Disputation

In the scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages, disputations (in Latin: disputationes, singular: disputatio) offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences. Fixed rules governed the process: they demanded dependence on traditional written authorities and the thorough understanding of each argument on each side.

Dissertation

A dissertation or thesis^[1] is a document submitted in support of candidature for a degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.^[2] In some countries/universities, the word thesis or a cognate is used as part of a bachelor's or master's course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate.

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985. After years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, economic growth was at a standstill. Failed attempts at reform, a stagnant economy, and war in Afghanistan led to a general feeling of discontent, especially^{[citation needed]} in the Baltic republics and Eastern Europe. Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Moscow regime. The dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986, and consequent lack of foreign exchange reserves in following years to purchase grain profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.^[1]

Docent

Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks below professor (i.e. professor ordinarius). Docent is also at some universities generically used for a person who has the right to teach.

Doctor (title)

Doctor, as a title, originates from the Latin word (gen.: doctoris) which means teacher. The word is originally an agentive noun of the verb docēre ('to teach'). It has been used as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread to the Americas, former European colonies, and is now prevalent in most of the world. Abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr.", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate-level degree. Doctorates may be research doctorates, or professional doctorates. When addressing several people, both of whom holds a doctoral title, one may use the plural abbreviation "Drs." or in some languages,^[which?] Dres., may be used, e.g., instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Rubinstein: Drs. Miller and Rubinstein. When referring to relatives with the same surname, it is common to use the form "The Doctors Smith".

Doctor of Audiology

The Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) is a first professional degree for an audiologist. The Au.D. program is designed to produce audiologists who are skilled in providing diagnostic, rehabilitative, and other services associated with hearing, balance, and related audiological fields. There is an emphasis on the clinical learning experience, though most programs also have a research component. The audiology training program can typically be completed in 4-years if the student has a background in Speech-Language Pathology & Audiology/Communication Sciences and Disorders. Students without a background will generally have to complete a second-bachelor's program although some schools are beginning to introduce a 5-year program for students without a background in the field.

Doctor of Business Administration

The degree of Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A) is a research doctorate. The D.B.A usually requires coursework beyond the masters degree and research that results in a dissertation or journal publication and contributes to business theory or practice.

Doctor of Dental Medicine

There are a number of dental degrees offered by schools in various countries around the world. The Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) are equivalent academic degrees awarded to dentists in some countries, including the United States. Degrees of equivalent or similar stature in other countries include:

Doctor of Divinity

Doctor of Divinity (D.D. or DD, Divinitatis Doctor in Latin) is an advanced academic degree in divinity. Historically, it identified one who had been licensed by a university to teach Christian theology or related religious subjects.

Doctor of Education

The Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D. or D.Ed.) is a discipline-based doctorate that prepares the student for academic, administrative, clinical or research positions in education. Like other doctorates, (e.g., the Ph.D., D.A., D.Sc., and so on), the Ed.D./D.Ed. is a terminal degree and recognized by the National Science Foundation (NSF) "as equivalent to the Ph.D." ^[1][2].

Doctor of Engineering

The Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng. or D.Engr. or Eng.D. or Dr.Eng. or D.E.) is an academic degree awarded on the basis of advanced study and research in engineering. In most of the countries it is the terminal research doctorate degree in engineering or applied science.

Doctor of Juridical Science

Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor of the Science of Law, (in Latin) Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (sometimes also referred to as a Doctor of Laws), abbreviated J.S.D. or S.J.D., is a research doctorate in law.^[1] It is offered primarily in the United States, where it originated, and in Canada. As a research doctorate, it follows professional training in law (LL.B. or J.D.) and the first graduate-level training in law (LL.M.), and is primarily aimed at training professors, legal scientists, and other scholars in law.^[2]

Doctor of Laws

Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Science is a doctoral degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country, and includes degree such as the LL.D., Ph.D., Dr. iur., D.C.L., J.D., and S.J.D. or J.S.D. (Scientiae Juridicae Doctor in Latin).

Doctor of Medicine

Doctor of Medicine (MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine") is a doctoral degree for physicians (medical doctors). The degree is granted by medical schools.

Doctor of Music

The Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus.,Mus.D. or Mus.Doc.), like other doctorates, is an academic degree of the highest level. The D.Mus. is intended for musicians and composers who wish to combine the highest attainments in their area of specialization with doctoral-level academic study in music. (In the UK, apart from only a few universities (such as those of Oxford and Cambridge) and some music conservatories, the majority of doctoral level qualifications in music are styled with the generic doctoral title of PhD).

Doctor of Nursing Practice

There are several doctorate-level degrees in nursing: Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP or DrNP), Doctor of Nursing Science (DNSc, DNS or DSN) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Nursing. The Doctor of Nursing (ND) degree has been phased out and most universities have transitioned to the DNP. The PhD and DNS degrees are generally considered research-oriented degrees, whereas the DNP is a practice-oriented or clinical doctorate.^[1]

Doctor of Philosophy

Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated PhD (also Ph.D.), for the Latin philosophiæ doctor, meaning "teacher of philosophy", or alternatively, DPhil,^[1] Dr. phil.^[2] or similar, for the equivalent doctor philosophiæ, is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities. In many English-speaking countries, the PhD is the highest degree one can earn ^[3] and applies to graduates in a wide array of disciplines in the sciences and humanities. The PhD or equivalent has become a requirement for a career as a university professor or researcher in most fields.

Doctor of Physical Therapy

The Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) is a postbaccalaureate degree conferred upon successful completion of a doctoral level professional or postprofessional physical therapy education program. The specific nomenclature "DPT" is not a substitute or alternative for the physical therapist clinical designator "PT."^[1] There remains significant criticism^[2] regarding the granting of a doctoral level degree for a field that until 1998 only required a bachelors degree.^[3] The concern centers around both the need for such a degree and the possibility that physical therapists may incur substantial student debt with an extended education that pays no greater than it did when only a bachelors degree was required.^[4]

Doctor of Practical Theology

The Doctor of Practical Theology (D.P.T., D.Th.P.) is an advanced professional degree for practitioners seeking to apply theological principles to their professional practice. The typical degree candidate is a part-time student who continues his/her full-time professional responsibilities. The modern development of this program in the U.K. (D.P.T.) has been greatly influenced by educators and other professionals affiliated with the Association of Practical Theology[1] (APT).

Doctor of Science

Doctor of Science (Latin: Scientiæ Doctor), usually abbreviated Sc.D., D.Sc., S.D. or Dr.Sc., is an academic research degree awarded in a number of countries throughout the world. In some countries, such as the Argentina, UK, Ireland, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Ukraine, Russia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and several Commonwealth countries, the Sc.D. is a 'higher doctorate' awarded in recognition of a substantial and sustained contribution to scientific knowledge.

Doctor of Social Science

The Doctorate of Social Science is a higher qualification offered by select universities, which serves as a doctoral level qualification specifically relating to academic work in the field of social sciences.

Doctor of Theology

Doctor of Theology (in Latin Doctor Theologiae, abbreviated D.Th. or Th.D. ) is a terminal academic degree in theology. It is a research degree, involving the publication of an original contribution to scholarship in the form of a dissertation, that is for most purposes the equivalent of a Doctor of Philosophy in Theology or a similar discipline. Th.D. programs are usually designed for theological scholarship within a religious tradition (most often, Christian), whereas Ph.D. programs are usually designed to study religious issues in the larger context of the liberal arts and humanities.

Doctor of the University

An honorary degree^[1] or a degree honoris causa (Latin: 'for the sake of the honour') is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived the usual requirements (such as matriculation, residence, study and the passing of examinations). The degree itself is typically a doctorate or, less commonly, a master's degree, and may be awarded to someone who has no prior connection with the institution in question.