Cosmology

1000000000 (number), Abrahamic religion, Accelerating universe, Aether, Al-Ghazali, Al-Kindi, Alan Guth, Albert Einstein, Alexander Friedmann, Ali Kuşçu, Almagest, Altered states of consciousness, Ambiplasma, Anaxagoras, Ancient Greek, Andrei Linde, Andromeda galaxy, Annihilation, Antimatter, Aristarchus, Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle, Arno Penzias, Arthur Eddington, Arthur Koestler, Arthur Walker, Aryabhata, Astrology, Astronomy, Astrophysics, Atom, Atomism, Australian Aboriginal, Barry Long, Belgium, Biblical cosmology, Big Bang, Big bang, Big crunch, Bindu, Brahmanda Purana, Brane, Brans-Dicke, Buddhism, Buddhist cosmology, COBE, Carl H. Brans, Catholic Encyclopedia, Causality, Celestial mechanics, Celestial sphere, Celestial spheres, Chaotic inflation theory, Christian Wolff (philosopher), Christian philosophy, Christianity, Consciousness, Copernican principle, Cosmic egg, Cosmic inflation, Cosmic microwave background radiation, Cosmic year, Cosmogony, Cosmological constant, Cosmology, Cosmology (metaphysics), Cosmos, Creation according to Genesis, Creation myth, Creationism, Creationist cosmologies, Cyclic model, Dark energy, De Sitter universe, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Deceleration parameter, Deferent and epicycle, Deity, Dialectic, Dirac large numbers hypothesis, Dogma, Double layer (plasma), Dreaming (spirituality), Dynamism (metaphysics), Early Islamic philosophy, Earth's rotation, Edge Foundation, Inc., Edward Milne, Edwin Hubble, Elliptical orbit, Emanation, Emanationism, End of the universe, Epicurus, Epicycles, Epigenesis (creative intelligences), Epistemological rupture, Equant, Eschatology, Esoteric cosmology, Esoteric knowledge, Esotericism, Existence, Expanding universe, Faith, Flammarion woodcut, Flatness problem, Fred Hoyle, Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker, Friedmann equations, Galileo Galilei, General Relativity, General relativity, Geocentric, Geocentric model, Georges Lemaître, Gnosticism, Gods, Gravitational constant, Great Debate, Hand-colouring, Hannes Alfvén, Harlow Shapley, Heber D. Curtis, Heliocentric, Herman Bondi, Hindu cosmology, Hinduism, Horizon problem, Howard Robertson, Human race, Hylomorphism, Hyperbolic space, Ibn al-Shatir, Immanuel Kant, Indian astronomy, Intelligent design, Intuition (knowledge), Involution (metaphysics), Isaac Newton, Islam, Islamic astronomy, Islamic cosmology, Island universe, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Jainism, Jewish philosophy, Johann Lambert, Johannes Kepler, John Philoponus, Judaism, Kabbalah, Kalam, Karl Schwarzschild, Kashmir Shaivism, Kepler's laws, Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, Law of universal gravitation, Leucippus, List of deities, M theory, Mach’s principle, Maragheh observatory, Marcus Aurelius, Martinus Thomsen, Mechanism (philosophy), Medieval philosophy, Metaphysics, Metric expansion of space, Milky Way, Milne universe, Monism, Moon, Multiverse, Neil Turok, New Age Spirituality, Nicolaus Copernicus, Nilakantha Somayaji, Non-standard cosmology, Occultism, On the Heavens, Orbifold, Orbit, Oscillating universe, Oskar Klein, Oxford University Press, Pantheism, Paul Dirac, Paul Steinhardt, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Philosophy, Physical cosmology, Physical law, Physical laws, Physics, Plane (cosmology), Plasma cosmology, Princeton University Press, Ptolemaic system, Ptolemy, Quintessence (physics), Qur'an, Radiation, Reality, Redshift, Religion, Religion and science, Religious cosmology, René Descartes, Rigveda, Robert H. Dicke, Robert Woodrow Wilson, Roger Bacon, Roman Catholic Church, Saadia Gaon, Samsara, Scale factor (universe), Science, Scripture, Seleucus of Seleucia, Shape of the universe, Special relativity, Spiritual evolution, Spirituality, Sri Lanka, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Static universe, Steady state theory, Steven Weinberg, Stoicism, Stoics, Sufi cosmology, Taiji, Tantra, Tao, Teleology, The Sleepwalkers, Theosophy, Thomas Gold, Tide, Time, Timeline of cosmology, Tycho Brahe, Tychonic system, Tzimtzum, Universe, Vedas, Vincent Cronin, Void, WMAP, Wiktionary, Willem de Sitter, William H. McCrea, William MacMillan, World War I, Worldview, Yoga, Yuga,

Abrahamic religions (also known as Abrahamic faiths, Abrahamic traditions, religions of Abraham and semitic religions^[1]) has historically and traditionally been used to designate the world's three primary monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, emphasizing their common origin and values. Recently, some have included the Bahá'í Faith, founded by Baha’u’llah in 1863^[2] and certain smaller religions. For some 1,300 years their histories and thought have been intertwined. They are considered inextricably linked to one another because of a 'family likeness' and a certain commonality in theology.^[3] They are faiths that recognize a spiritual tradition identified with Abraham.^[4][5][6] However, relationships among them have varied from time and place and have often been characterized by mistrust, hatred^[7] and even war/persecution (e.g., the Muslim conquests, the Crusades, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the Inquisition). Phrased another way, the sacred narratives of all four of these religions feature many of the same figures, histories and places in each, although they often present them with slightly different roles, perspectives and meanings.

Accelerating universe

The accelerating universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate. In 1998 observations of Type Ia supernovae suggested that the expansion of the universe is accelerating^[1][2] since around redshift of z~0.5.^[3]

Al-Ghazali

Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111) (Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی), often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin,^[3][4] and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Sunni Islamic thought. He is considered a pioneer of the methods of doubt and skepticism,^[5] and in one of his major works, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he changed the course of early Islamic philosophy, shifting it away from an Islamic metaphysics influenced by ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and towards an Islamic philosophy based on cause-and-effect that was determined by God or intermediate angels, a theory now known as occasionalism.

Al-Kindi

Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī (Arabic: أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي‎) (c. 801–873 CE), also known to the West by the Latinized version of his name Alkindus, was an Arab Iraqi polymath:^[1] an Islamic philosopher, scientist, astrologer, astronomer, cosmologist, chemist, logician, mathematician, musician, physician, physicist, psychologist, and meteorologist.^[2] Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world,^[3] and as a pioneer in chemistry, cryptography, medicine, music theory, physics, psychology, and the philosophy of science.

Alan Guth

The Franklin Medal for Physics of the Franklin Institute, Isaac Newton Medal of Institute of Physics (2009), Dirac Prize of the International Center for Theoretical Physics in Trieste,

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n]  ( listen); 14 March 1879–18 April 1955) was a theoretical physicist who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and the "greatest physicist ever", according to a 1999 poll of leading physicists^[3]. His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and gravitational lensing, the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules, the photon theory and wave-particle duality, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept, the semiclassical version of the Schrödinger equation, and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose–Einstein condensation.

Alexander Friedmann

Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman or Friedmann (Russian: Александр Александрович Фридман) (June 16, 1888, Saint Petersburg, Imperial Russia – September 16, 1925, Leningrad, USSR) was a Russian and Soviet cosmologist and mathematician.

Ali Kuşçu

Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed known as Ali Qushji or Ali Kuscu(?, 1403 – 16 December 1474) was an astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist. He is best known for his development of an astronomical physics independent from natural philosophy and for providing empirical evidence for the Earth's motion in his treatise, Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, in addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous work Zij-i-Sultani and his efforts in founding Sahn-ı Seman University which is one of the first Ottoman universities.

Almagest

Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name (الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, in English The Great Book) of a mathematical and astronomical treatise proposing the complex motions of the stars and planetary paths, originally written in Greek as Μαθηματικἠ Σύνταξις (Mathematikē Sýntaxis, Mathematical Treatise; later titled Hē Megálē Sýntaxis, The Great Treatise) by Ptolemy of Alexandria, Egypt, written in the 2nd century. Its geocentric model was accepted as correct for more than a thousand years in Islamic and European societies through the Middle Ages and early Renaissance. The Almagest is the most important source of information on ancient Greek astronomy. The Almagest has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient Greek mathematician Hipparchus's work, which has been lost. Hipparchus wrote about trigonometry, but because his works have been lost mathematicians use Ptolemy's book as their source for Hipparchus' works and ancient Greek trigonometry in general.

Altered states of consciousness

An altered state of consciousness, (ASC)^[1], also named altered state of mind is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking beta wave state. The expression was used as early as 1969 by Charles Tart^[2][3] and describes induced changes in one's mental state, almost always temporary. A synonymous phrase is "altered states of awareness".

Ambiplasma

Plasma cosmology is a non-standard cosmology^[2] generally attributed to Nobel Prize winner Hannes Alfvén in the 1960s^[3] that is an attempt to explain the development of the known universe by interaction of electromagnetic forces with plasma (ionized gas).^[4] Alfvén developed his cosmological ideas based on scaling of observations from terrestrial laboratories and in situ space physics experiments to cosmological scales orders-of-magnitude greater.^[1] His most famous cosmological proposal was that the universe was an ionized equal mixture of matter and anti-matter in the form of so-called ambiplasma that would separate naturally as annihilation reactions occurred, accompanied by a tremendous release of energy^{[citation needed]}.

Anaxagoras

Anaxagoras (Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας, Anaxagoras, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.

Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (c. 9th–6th centuries BC), Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC–6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine ("common") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects.

Andrei Linde

Andrei Dmitriyevich Linde (b. March 2, 1948 in Moscow, USSR) is a Russian-American theoretical physicist and professor of Physics at Stanford University. Dr. Linde is best known for his work on the concept of the inflationary universe. He received his Bachelor of Science degree from Moscow State University. In 1975, Linde was awarded a Ph.D. from the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow. Among the various awards he's received for his work on inflation, in 2002 he was awarded the Dirac Medal, along with Alan Guth of MIT and Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University.

Andromeda galaxy

The Andromeda Galaxy (pronounced /ænˈdrɒmədə/, also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224; often referred to as the Great Andromeda Nebula in older texts) is a spiral galaxy approximately 2,500,000 light-years (1.58×10¹¹ AU) away^[4] in the constellation Andromeda. It is the nearest spiral galaxy to our own, the Milky Way. As it is visible as a faint smudge on a moonless night, it is one of the farthest objects visible to the naked eye, and can be seen even from urban areas with binoculars. It is named after the princess Andromeda (Greek: Ανδρομέδη – Andromédē) in Greek mythology. Andromeda is the largest galaxy of the Local Group, which consists of the Andromeda Galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, the Triangulum Galaxy, and about 30 other smaller galaxies. Although the largest, Andromeda may not be the most massive, as recent findings suggest that the Milky Way contains more dark matter and may be the most massive in the grouping.^[9] The 2006 observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope revealed that M31 contains one trillion (10¹²) stars,^[10] several times more than the number of stars in our own galaxy, which is estimated to be c. 200-400 billion.^[11]

Annihilation

Annihilation is defined as "total destruction" or "complete obliteration" of an object;^[1] having its root in the Latin nihil (nothing). A literal translation is "to make into nothing".

Antimatter

In particle physics, antimatter is the extension of the concept of the antiparticle to matter, where antimatter is composed of antiparticles in the same way that normal matter is composed of particles. For example, an antielectron (a positron, an electron with a positive charge) and an antiproton (a proton with a negative charge) could form an antihydrogen atom in the same way that an electron and a proton form a normal matter hydrogen atom. Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter would lead to the annihilation of both in the same way that mixing antiparticles and particles does, thus giving rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs.

Aristarchus of Samos

Aristarchus (Greek: Ἀρίσταρχος, Arístarchos; 310 BC – ca. 230 BC) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, born on the island of Samos, in Greece. He was the first person to present an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the solar system, placing the Sun, not the Earth, at the center of the known universe. He was influenced by the Pythagorean Philolaus of Croton, but, in contrast to Philolaus, he had both identified the central fire with the Sun, as well as putting other planets in correct order from the Sun. His astronomical ideas were rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy until they were successfully revived nearly 1800 years later by Copernicus and extensively developed and built upon by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton. The crater Aristarchus on the Moon is named in his honor.