Bible

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1 Esdras (Greek Έσδράς Αˊ), Greek Ezra, is an ancient Greek version of the Biblical book of Ezra in use among ancient Jewry, the early church, and many modern Christians with varying degrees of canonicity and a high historical usefulness.

613 Mitzvot

The 613 Mitzvot (Hebrew: תרי"ג מצוות‎: Taryag Mitzvot, "613 commandments") are statements and principles of law and ethics contained in the Torah or Five Books of Moses. These principles of Biblical law are sometimes called commandments (mitzvot) or collectively as the "Law of Moses" (Torat Moshe, תורת משה), "Mosaic Law", or simply "the Law" (though these terms are ambiguous and also applied to the Torah itself).

Aaron

In the Hebrew Bible, Aaron (pronounced /ˈɛərən/;^[1] Hebrew: אַהֲרֹן‎ Ahărōn, Arabic: هارون‎ Hārūn), sometimes called Aaron the Levite (אַהֲרֹן הַלֵוִי), was the brother of Moses, (Exodus 6:16-20)^[2] and represented the priestly functions of his tribe, becoming the first High Priest of the Israelites. While Moses was receiving his education at the Egyptian royal court and during his exile among the Midianites, Aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of Egypt (Goshen). Aaron there gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech; so that when the time came for the demand upon the Pharaoh to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s nabi, or spokesman, to his own people (Exodus 7:1)^[3] and, after their unwillingness to hear, to the Pharaoh himself (Exodus 7:9).^[4] Various dates for his life have been proposed, ranging from approximately 1600 to 1200 B.C.

Abraham

Abraham (Hebrew: אַבְרָהָם, Modern Avraham Tiberian ʾAḇrāhām, Arabic: إبراهيم‎, Ibrāhīm, ʾAbrəham) is the founding patriarch of the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Midianites and Edomite peoples, as described in the book of Genesis. He is widely regarded as the patriarch of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. It is uncertain to what extent Abraham was a mythical figure and to what extent a real historical person.

Abraham Geiger

Abraham Geiger (24 May 1810 in Frankfurt am Main – 23 October 1874 in Berlin) was a German rabbi and scholar who led the founding of Reform Judaism. He sought to remove all nationalistic elements (particularly the "Chosen People" doctrine) from Judaism, stressing it as an evolving and changing religion.

Abraham ibn Ezra

Rabbi Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra (Hebrew: אברהם אבן עזרא or ראב"ע, also known as Abenezra) was born in Tudela, Islamic Spain (1089), and died c. 1164 (apparently in London;^[1]some have the dates as 1092 or 1093–1167^[2]).

Abrahamic religions

Abrahamic religions (also known as Abrahamic faiths, Abrahamic traditions, religions of Abraham and semitic religions^[1]) has historically and traditionally been used to designate the world's three primary monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, emphasizing their common origin and values. Recently, some have included the Bahá'í Faith, founded by Baha’u’llah in 1863^[2] and certain smaller religions. For some 1,300 years their histories and thought have been intertwined. They are considered inextricably linked to one another because of a 'family likeness' and a certain commonality in theology.^[3] They are faiths that recognize a spiritual tradition identified with Abraham.^[4][5][6] However, relationships among them have varied from time and place and have often been characterized by mistrust, hatred^[7] and even war/persecution (e.g., the Muslim conquests, the Crusades, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the Inquisition). Phrased another way, the sacred narratives of all four of these religions feature many of the same figures, histories and places in each, although they often present them with slightly different roles, perspectives and meanings.

Acts of Peter

The Acts of Peter is one of the earliest of the apocryphal acts of the apostles. The majority of the text has survived only in the Latin translation of the Vercelli manuscript. It is mainly notable for a description of a miracle contest between Saint Peter and Simon Magus, and as the first record of the tradition that St. Peter was crucified head-down.

Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles (Latin: Actus Apostolorum), usually referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; Acts outlines the history of the Apostolic Age. The author is traditionally identified as Luke the Evangelist.

Alcohol in the Bible

Alcoholic beverages appear repeatedly in biblical literature, from Noah planting a vineyard and becoming inebriated in the Hebrew Bible, to Jesus in the New Testament miraculously making copious amounts^[1] of wine at the marriage at Cana and later incorporating wine as part of the Eucharist. Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a frequent source of symbolism,^[2] and was an important part of daily life in biblical times.^[2][3][4] The inhabitants of ancient Palestine also drank beer, and wines made from fruits other than grapes, and references to these appear in scripture as well.^[5]

Aleinu

Aleinu (Hebrew: עָלֵינוּ, "ours" here to be understood as: "it is upon us, it is our obligation or duty") is a Jewish prayer found in the siddur, the classical Jewish prayerbook. It is recited at the end of each of the three daily Jewish services. It is also recited following the New Moon blessing and after a circumcision is performed.

Aleppo Codex

The Aleppo Codex (Hebrew: כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא‎ Keter Aram Soba, pronounced [kɛːθɛːʀ ʔɐ̆ʀɔːm sˤoːvɔːʔ]) is a medieval bound manuscript of the Hebrew Bible. The codex was written in the 10th century CE.^[1]

Alexandrian text-type

The Alexandrian text-type (also called Neutral or Egyptian) is one of several text-types used in New Testament textual criticism to describe and group the textual character of biblical manuscripts. The Alexandrian text-type is the form of the Greek New Testament that predominates in the earliest surviving documents, as well as the text type used in Egyptian Coptic manuscripts. In later manuscripts (from the 9th century onwards), the Byzantine text-type became far more common and remains as the standard text in the Greek Orthodox church and also underlies most Protestant translations of the Reformation era. Most modern New Testament translations, however, now use an Eclectic Greek text that is closest to the Alexandrian text-type.

Aliyah

Aliyah (Hebrew: עלייה Translit.: Aliya Translated: "ascent") is the immigration of Jews to Eretz Israel. It is a basic tenet of Zionist ideology, and a value in almost all movements of Judaism. The opposite action, Jewish emigration from Israel, is referred to as Yerida ("descent").

Allegorical interpretation

In a biblical context, Allegorical interpretation is an approach assuming that the authors of a text (e.g., the Bible) intended something other than what is literally expressed.

Alternative Judaism

Alternative Judaism or Agnostic Judaism refers to a variety of groups whose members, while identifying as Jews in some fashion, nevertheless do not practice Rabbinical Judaism as most other Jews.

Amidah

The Amidah (Hebrew: תפילת העמידה, Tefilat HaAmidah "The Standing Prayer"), also called the Shmone Esre (שמנה עשרה, Shmoneh Esreh "The Eighteen," in reference to the original number of constituent blessings), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. As Judaism's prayer par excellence, the Amidah is often designated simply as tfila (תפילה, "prayer") in Rabbinic literature.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC^[1] with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia.^[2] Its history occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. Ancient Egypt reached its pinnacle during the New Kingdom, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this late period, and the rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province.^[3]

Antilegomena

"Antilegomena" (from Greek αντιλεγομένα, meaning things contradicted or disputed, literally spoken against^[1]) was an epithet the Church Fathers used to denote books of the New Testament that, although sometimes publicly read in the churches, were not—for a considerable amount of time—considered to be genuine, or received into the canon of Scripture. They were thus contrasted with the "Homologoumena" (from Greek ομολογουμένα), or universally acknowledged writings.

Apocrypha

Apocrypha comes from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφα, which means those having been hidden away. The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the Church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to the Gospel according to the Hebrews or Gnostic writings as apocryphal is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers.^{[1][original research?]} Non canonical books are texts of uncertain authenticity, or writings where the work is seriously questioned. Given that different denominations have different ideas about what constitutes canonical scripture, there are several different versions of the apocrypha.

Arab-Israeli conflict

Israeli-Palestinian conflict · Israel-Lebanon conflict · Arab League · Soviet Union / Russia · Israel, Palestinians and the United Nations · Iran-Israel relations · Israel-United States relations · Boycott of Israel

Aramaic primacy

Aramaic primacy is the view that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language. Aramaic primacy is asserted over and against Greek primacy (the dominant scholarly view).

Arba'ah Turim

Arba'ah Turim (Hebrew: ארבעה טורים‎), often called simply the Tur, is an important Halakhic code, composed by Yaakov ben Asher (Spain, 1270 -c.1340, also referred to as "Ba'al ha-Turim", "Author of the Tur"). The four-part structure of the Tur and its division into chapters (simanim) were adopted by the later code Shulchan Aruch.

Archaeology

Archaeology (sometimes written archæology) or archeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia – ἀρχαῖος, arkhaīos, "ancient"; and -λογία, -logiā, "-logy") is the science and humanity^[1] that studies historical human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material culture and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, and landscapes. Archaeology aims to understand humankind through these humanistic endeavors.^[1] In the United States the field is commonly considered to be a subset of anthropology, along with physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology,^[2] whilst in British and European universities, archaeology is considered as a separate discipline.

Asher ben Jehiel

Asher ben Jehiel (Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel, sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 – 1327) was an eminent rabbi and Talmudist best known for his abstract of Talmudic law. He is often referred to as Rabbenu Asher, “our Rabbi Asher” or by the Hebrew acronym for this title, the ROSH (Hebrew, רא"ש, literally "Head"). His yartzeit is on the 9 Cheshvan.

Authors of the Bible

This list of authors of the Bible gives the traditional and modern scholarly views. The books of the Old Testament are listed according to their order in the Jewish Tanakh.

Authorship of the Johannine works

Scholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works (Gospel of John, the first, second, and third epistles of John, and the Book of Revelation) since at least the third century. Beasley-Murray notes, "Everything we want to know about this book [the Gospel of John] is uncertain, and everything about it that is apparently knowable is [a] matter of dispute (sic)."^[1] The main debate centers on (1) Whether these works were authored by the same person, and (2) The identity of the author(s).

Authorship of the Pauline epistles

The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to, and explicitly ascribed to, Paul of Tarsus. Some consider the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews a fourteenth Pauline epistle.^[1] Except for Hebrews (see Antilegomena), the Pauline authorship of these letters was not academically questioned until the nineteenth century^{[citation needed]}, though there certainly was dispute over the issue from the beginning of Early Christianity^[2].

Authorship of the Petrine epistles

The authorship of the Petrine epistles is an important question in biblical criticism, parallel to that of the authorship of the Pauline epistles, since scholars have long sought to determine who were the exact authors of the New Testament letters. Most scholars today conclude that Peter was not the author of the two epistles that are attributed to him and that they were written by two different authors.^[1]

Autograph

An autograph (from the Greek: αὐτός, autós, "self" and γράφω, gráphō, "write") is a document written entirely in the handwriting of its author, as opposed to a typeset document or one transcribed by an amanuensis or a copyist; the meaning overlaps with that of the word holograph.

Avrohom Mordechai Alter

Avraham Mordechai Alter (25 December 1866 – 3 June 1948), also known as the Imrei Emes after the works he authored, was the third Rebbe of the Hasidic dynasty of Ger, a position he held from 1905 until his death in 1948. He was one of the founders of the Agudas Israel in Poland and was influential in establishing a network of Jewish schools there. It is claimed that at one stage he led over 200,000 Hasidim.

Baal Shem Tov

Rabbi Yisroel (Israel) ben Eliezer (רבי ישראל בן אליעזר August 27, 1698 (18 Elul) – May 22, 1760), often called Baal Shem Tov or Besht, was a Jewish mystical rabbi. He is considered to be the founder of Hasidic Judaism (see also Mezhbizh Hasidic dynasty).

Baal teshuva movement

Baal teshuva movement ("return [to Judaism] movement") refers to a worldwide phenomenon among the Jewish people. It began during the mid-twentieth century, when large numbers of previously highly assimilated Jews chose to move in the direction of practicing Judaism. The spiritual and religious journey of those involved has brought them to become involved with all the Jewish denominations, the most far-reaching stage being when they choose to follow Orthodox Judaism and its branches such as Haredi Judaism and Hasidic Judaism. This movement has continued unabated until the present time and has been noted by scholars who have written articles and books about its significance to modern Jewish history.

Babylonian captivity

Although the term Babylonian captivity, or Babylonian exile, typically refers to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC, in fact the exile started with the first deportation in 597 BC. The captivity and subsequent return to Israel and rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple are pivotal events in the history of the Jews and Judaism, and had far-reaching impacts on the development of modern Jewish culture and practice.

Baptism

In Christianity, baptism (from Greek baptizo: "immersing", "performing ablutions", i.e., "washing")^[1] is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which one is admitted to membership of the Christian Church and as a member of the particular Christian tradition in which the baptism is administered.^{[2] [3]}

Bar Kokhba revolt

The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136^[1]) (Hebrew: מרד בר כוכבא‎ or mered bar kokhba) against the Roman Empire was the third major rebellion by the Jews of Iudaea Province (also spelled Judaea) and the last of the Jewish-Roman Wars. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was acclaimed as a Messiah, a heroic figure who could restore Israel. The revolt established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for over two years, but a Roman army of 12 legions with auxiliaries finally crushed it. The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, except to attend Tisha B'Av. Jewish Christians hailed Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba. They were barred from Jerusalem along with the rest of the Jews. The war and its aftermath helped differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism, see also List of events in early Christianity. The revolt is also known as The Second Jewish-Roman War, The Second Jewish Revolt, The Third Jewish-Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt (counting the Kitos War, 115 - 117, as second).

Bart D. Ehrman

Bart D. Ehrman is an American New Testament scholar and textual critic of early Christianity. He is the James A. Gray Distinguished Professor and Chair of the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Baruch

Baruch (Hebrew: בָּרוּךְ, Modern Baruḫ Tiberian Bārûḵ ; "Blessed") has been a given name among Jews from Biblical times up to the present, on some occasions also used as surname. It is also found, though more rarely, among Christians - particularly among Protestants who use Old Testament names.

Baruch Spinoza

Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה‎, Portuguese: Bento de Espinosa, Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza) (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin.^[1] Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. Today, he is considered one of the great rationalists^[2] of 17th-century philosophy, laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment^[2] and modern biblical criticism.^[2] By virtue of his magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes' mind–body dualism, Spinoza is considered to be one of Western philosophy's most important philosophers. Philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all modern philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."^[3]

Belgium

The Kingdom of Belgium /ˈbɛldʒəm/ (help·info) is a country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organizations, including NATO.^[5] Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi) and has a population of about 10.7 million.

Ben Ish Chai

Yosef Chaim (1 September 1832 – 30 August 1909) (Hebrew: יוסף חיים מבגדאד) was a leading Hakham (Sephardic Rabbi), authority on Jewish law (Halakha) and Master Kabbalist. He is best known as author of the work on Halakha Ben Ish Chai (בן איש חי) ("Son of Man (who) Lives"), by which title he is also known.

Bereavement in Judaism

Bereavement in Judaism (Hebrew: אֲבֵלוּת, aveilut ; mourning) is a combination of minhag (traditional custom) and mitzvah (good deeds or religious obligation) derived from Judaism's classical Torah and rabbinic texts. The details of observance and practice vary according to each Jewish community.

Bernhard Anderson

Bernhard Word Anderson (died December 26, 2007) was an American United Methodist pastor and one of the best known^{[citation needed]} Old Testament scholars of the twentieth century.

Beth din

A beth din, beit din or beis din (Hebrew: בית דין, "house of judgment"; plural battei din) is a rabbinical court of Judaism. In ancient times, it was the building block of the legal system in the Land of Israel. Today, it is invested with legal powers in a number of religious matters (din Torah, "matter of litigation," plural dinei Torah) both in Israel and in Jewish communities in the Diaspora, where its judgments hold varying degrees of authority (depending upon the jurisdiction and subject matter) in matters specifically germane to Jewish religious life.