Ancient history

Çatalhöyük, Đông Sơn, Đông Sơn culture, 0 (number), 13th century BC, 14th century BC, 30th century BC, 3rd century BC, 5th millennium BC, A Short History of Pakistan, Ab Urbe Condita (book), Abraham in History and Tradition, Abrahamic religion, Achaemenid, Achaemenid Empire, Achaemenid dynasty, Acupuncture, Adad-nirari II, Adulis, Aegean Sea, Aerodynamics, Afghanistan, Africa, African Blackwood, Agatharchides, Agriculture, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Akkad, Akkadian Empire, Akkadian language, Al-Hirah, Alaric I, Alexander III of Macedon, Alexander the Great, Amarna Period, Amon, Amorite, An Dương Vương, Anatolia, Ancient Africa, Ancient China, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Egyptian religion, Ancient Egyptian technology, Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Greek technology, Ancient Greek technology and innovation, Ancient India, Ancient Iranian peoples, Ancient Near East, Ancient Olympic Games, Ancient Roman religion, Ancient Rome, Ancient Vietnam, Ancient art, Ancient art history, Ancient history, Ancient literature, Ancient maritime history, Ancient music, Ancient science, Ancient technology, Ancient warfare, Angeln, Angles, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Anglo-Saxons, Anitta, Anno Domini, Antigonus I, Antiquity, Anyang, Aqueduct (Roman), Aquila (Roman), Arab, Arab Christian, Arabia, Arabia Felix, Arabian Peninsula, Arabian peninsula, Arabic alphabet, Arabs, Aramaean, Aramaic, Archaeological field survey, Archaeology, Archaic Greece, Archaic Homo sapiens, Architecture, Aristotle, Ark of the Covenant, Armenian Highland, Arthur Llewellyn Basham, Arthur Rimbaud, Artifact (archaeology), Ashoka, Ashoka the Great, Ashtadhyayi, Ashurbanipal, Ashurnasirpal II, Asia, Asoka, Assab, Assur, Assyria, Astronomical year numbering, Astronomy, Astyages, Athens, Australia, Avesta, Axial Age, Axial age, Axum, Axumite Empire, Ayurveda, Azd, Aztec, BBC, Babylon, Babylonia, Babylonian, Babylonian captivity, Baekje, Baghdad, Bahrain, Balhae, Ballet, Bangladesh, Banu Lakhm, Barbarian, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County, Battering ram, Battle of Adrianople, Battle of Carrhae, Battle of Gaugamela, Battle of Marathon, Battle of Muye, Battle of Zama, Battle of the Hydaspes River, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Bede, Before Christ, Behavioral modernity, Bilhah, Bimbisara, Binary numeral system, Book of Genesis, Book of Later Han, Book of Wei, Bow and arrow, British Isles, British Museum, Bronze Age, Bronze Age China, Bronze Age Europe, Bronze Age India, Bronze Age collapse, Bronze and Iron Age religion, Buddhism, Buddhist, Burial, Byzantine Empire, Cổ Loa, Caesar Augustus, Cambyses II, Canaan, Carthage, Carthaginian Empire, Caspian Sea, Cataract surgery, Caucasian Iberia, Celtic polytheism, Celts, Central Europe, Centralized government, Chaldea, Chalukya, Chandragupta Maurya, Charlemagne, Chera dynasty, Children of Israel, China, Chinese character, Chinese medicine, Chinese writing system, Choe Chiwon, Chola Empire, Chola dynasty, Christ, Christianity, Christianization, Christopher Columbus, Cities, City-state, Civilization, Classical Antiquity, Classical Greece, Classical Sanskrit, Classical antiquity, Classical orders, Classical unities, Classics, Colchis, Commandery, Confederation, Confucianism, Confucius, Constantine the Great, Constantinople, Contemporary history, Continental Celtic, Coronation, Cradle of civilization, Cucuteni culture, Cultural assimilation, Culture of ancient Rome, Cuneiform, Cuneiform script, Cyprus, Cyrenaica, Cyrus the Great, D'mt, Dacia, Dae Jo-yeong, Dance, Dangun, Darius I, Darius III of Persia, David Abbasi, Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism, Decline of the Roman Empire, Democratic, Demographics of Syria, Development of religion, Digital Classicist, Digital object identifier, Dilmun, Diocletian, Diodorus Siculus, Division of labor, Dongguk Tonggam, Draft (sailing), Duke of Zhou, Dynasty, Early Bronze Age II, Early Christian, Early Christianity, Early Iron Age, Early Middle Ages, Early human migration, Early modern period, Eastern Iranian languages, Eastern Roman Emperor, Eastern Roman Empire, Ebla, Ebony, Economic history of India, Edgar Allan Poe, Edict of Milan, Edom, Edomite, Education, Egypt, Egyptian pyramids, Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, Elam, Elamite language, Elath, Eleventh dynasty of Egypt, Elite, Emperor, Emperor Wu of Jìn, Empire, Engineering, Engineers, Epic poetry, Eridu, Eritrea, Erligang culture, Ethiopia, Etruria, Etruscan civilization, Etruscan language, Etruscans, Euboean Greek, Euphrates, Europe, Exploration, Explorer, Fall of the Roman Empire, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, Fertile Crescent, Fifth dynasty of Egypt, Fire, First Chinese domination (History of Vietnam), First Dynasty of Uruk, First Intermediate Period of Egypt, Fortification, Fourth Cataract, Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, Fourth dynasty of Egypt, France, Frankincense, Franks, Frisians, Fujian, Future, Futurology, Galatia, Galen, Gandhara, Ganga dynasty, Gaul, Geographia, Geographical, German language, Germanic Tribes, Germanic languages, Germanic migrations, Germanic monarchy, Germanic peoples, Germanic tribes, Germany, Ghaggar-Hakra River, Ghassanids, Goguryeo, Goguryeo-Sui Wars, Gojoseon, Gordian III, Goryeo Dynasty, Graeco-Roman, Grammar, Grand Anicut, Great Britain, Great Migrations, Great Sphinx of Giza, Great Wall, Greater Iran, Greco-Persian Wars, Greece, Greek Revival, Greek city states, Greek history, Greek language, Greek mythology, Greek polytheism, Greeks, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guangzhou, Guatemala, Gulf of Aqaba, Gupta Empire, Gupta India, Gupta empire, Gutian Empire, Gymnasium (ancient Greece), Hà Nội, Hùng Vương, Hồng Bàng Dynasty, Hadramaut, Hallstatt culture, Hammurabi, Han Dynasty, Han Wu Di, Haniwa, Hannibal, Hannu, Harappa, Harsha, Hatshepsut, Hattusa, Hauran, Hazrat-e Turkestan, Hebrew, Heinemann (book publisher), Hellenic civilization, Hellenistic, Hellenistic philosophy, Hellenistic religion, Hellenized, Herodotus, Heruli, Himiko (queen), Himyar, Himyarite empire, Hindu-Arabic numeral system, Hindu culture, Hinduism, Hippocrates, Hispania, Historian, Historical Vedic religion, Historiography, History, History of Anatolia, History of Ancient Israel and Judah, History of Buddhism, History of East Asia, History of Europe, History of Hinduism, History of India, History of Iran, History of Iraq, History of Italy during Roman times, History of Japan, History of Korea, History of Mongolia, History of Rome, History of Scandinavia, History of Science and Technology in India, History of South Asia, History of Yemen, History of agriculture, History of mathematics, History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent, History of philosophy, History of religion, History of science, History of science and technology in China, History of sex, History of technology, History of the Americas, History of the Etruscans, History of writing, Hittite Empire, Hittite empire, Hittites, Holy Land, Holy Roman Empire, Homer, Hominina, Homo (genus), Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, Horn of Africa, Hoysalas, Huastec civilization, Human evolution, Hundred Schools of Thought, Hunnish, Huns, Iberian Peninsula, Iberian peninsula, Illyria, Inanna, Inca civilization, India, Indian astronomy, Indian mathematics, Indian philosophy, Indo-European languages, Indo-Gangetic plains, Indo-Hephthalite, Indus, Indus River, Indus Valley Civilisation, Indus Valley Civilization, Ingvaeonic, Insular Celtic, International Standard Book Number, Invasion, Inventions in the Islamic world, Inventions in the Muslim world, Ionia, Iran, Iranian Peoples, Iranian philosophy, Iraq, Ireland, Iron Age, Iron Age China, Iron Age Europe, Iron Age India, Iron Age Japan, Irrigation, Isaac, Isadora Duncan, Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Isis, Islam, Islamic conquest of Persia, Israel, Israelites, Italy, Ivory, Izapa, Jabbok, Jacob, Jainism, Japan, Jared Diamond, Jean Racine, Jebel Barkal, Jemdet Nasr, Jericho, Jerome, Jerusalem, Jesus, Jew, Jewang Ungi, Jhelum (City), Jiahu, Jin Dynasty (265–420), Jin state, John Milton, Jordan, Jordan River, Josephus, Judaea, Judaism, Julius Caesar, Justinian I, Jutes, Jutland, Kadambas, Kahlan, Kakatiya dynasty, Kalat, Pakistan, Kallanai, Kanesh, Kangju, Karachi, Kazakhstan, Kerma, Khafre's Pyramid, Khitan people, King Porus, King Wu of Zhou, Kingdom of Armenia, Kingdom of Awsan, Kingdom of Champa, Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Judah, Kingdom of Kush, Kish (Sumer), Kish tablet, Korea, Korean peninsula, Kosala, Kuru (India), Kushite, Kussara, Kyūshū, Lạc Việt, La Tène culture, Laban (Bible), Lake Van, Lakhmid Kingdom, Land of Punt, Late Antiquity, Later Three Kingdoms of Korea, Latin, Law code, Leah, Lebanon, Legalism (philosophy), Levant, Liaoning, List of Indian inventions, List of Kings of Rome, Literature, Livy, Longship, Lothal, Lower Paleolithic, Lower Saxony, Luoyang, Ma'rib, Macedon, Magadha, Magna Graecia, Maha Janapadas, Mahabharata, Mahajanapadas, Mahavira, Malabar, Malay Archipelago, Mandate of Heaven, Mannaeans, Marble, Marcus Brutus, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Marib Dam, Massawa, Mathematics, Maurya, Maurya Empire, Mauryan Empire, Maya civilization, Medes, Median Empire, Medicine, Medieval philosophy, Mediterranean, Mediterranean Sea, Mehrgarh, Melqart, Meluhha, Merchants, Merriam-Webster, Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia, Metals, Middle Ages, Middle Bronze Age, Middle East, Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Middle Paleolithic, Middle kingdoms of India, Migration to the New World, Military, Millennia, Mitanni, Mixtec, Modern history, Modernity, Mohenjo-daro, Mohism, Moldova, Molière, Monarch, Monarchy, Mongolian script, Monte Alban, Monument, Morality, Morphology (linguistics), Mughal empire, Music of Mesopotamia, Music of ancient Greece, Music of ancient Rome, Mycenaean Greece, Myrrh, Nabataean, Nabopolassar, Nairi (people), Nanda dynasty, Nazareth, Neša, Near East, Nebaioth, Nebuchadrezzar II, Necho II, Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Neoclassicism, Neolithic, Neolithic revolution, New Kingdom, New Kingdom of Egypt, New World, New York Times, Nigeria, Nile, Nile Delta, Nile River, Nineveh, Nok, Nordic Bronze Age, Norsemen, North Africa during the Classical Period, North India, Northern Vietnam, Nubia, Oasis, Oceania, Odoacer, Old Kingdom of Egypt, Old South Arabian, Old World, Oligarchy, Olmec, Olympiad, Olympic Games, Open Directory Project, Oracle bones, Oral tradition, Pāṇini, Paganism, Pakistan, Pallavas, Pandurang Vaman Kane, Pandya, Pandyan kingdom, Parthia, Parthian Empire, Parthian empire, Pastoral, Pataliputra, Peloponnesian War, Peninsula, Penuel, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Persia, Persian Empire, Persian culture, Persian people, Petra, Phagspa script, Pharaoh, Philip the Arab, Philosophy, Phoenicia, Phoenicians, Pingala, Piracy, Pithana, Plastic surgery, Plato, Platon Academy, Pliocene, Poetics (Aristotle), Political, Political divisions of China, Politics, Polybius, Polytheism, Pompeii, Pompey the Great, Potter's wheel, Prakrit, Pre-Columbian, Pre-Columbian Americas, Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, Pre-Islamic Arabia, Prefecture, Prehistoric man, Prehistoric warfare, Prehistory, Primary source, Proto-Celtic, Proto-writing, Protohistory, Protoliterate, Ptolemaic Egypt, Ptolemies, Ptolemy, Publius Licinius Crassus, Punic War, Punic Wars, Punjab (Pakistan), Punt (region), Qataban, Qin, Qin Dynasty, Qin Shi Huang, Queen of Sheba, Quetta, Rachel, Ram Sharan Sharma, Ramayana, Ramesside Period, Rashtrakuta, Recorded history, Red River (Asia), Red River (Vietnam), Red Sea, Regnal era, Religion, Religions, Religions of the Ancient Near East, Renaissance, Republic, Republics, Rigveda, River, Roberto Weiss, Roman Army, Roman Britain, Roman Emperor, Roman Empire, Roman Greece, Roman Iberia, Roman Republic, Roman architecture, Roman art, Roman imperial cult, Roman language, Roman law, Roman literature, Roman military, Roman polytheism, Roman technology, Roman temple, Roman theatre (structure), Roman villa, Romania, Romila Thapar, Romulus Augustus, SN 185, Sabaean Kingdom, Sabaean language, Sabaeans, Sack of Rome (410), Sagala, Sahure, Sail, Sallust, Samguk Yusa, Samudragupta, San Bartolo (Maya site), Sangam, Sanskrit, Sapping, Sargon of Akkad, Sassanian Empire, Sassanid Empire, Satavahana, Satavahanas, Satrap, Saxons, Scandinavia, Science, Science and technology in ancient India, Scipio Africanus, Scirian, Scotland, Sculpture, Scythia, Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, Secondary sources, Sela, Seleucid Empire, Seleucus I Nicator, Semitic, Semitic language, Shakya, Shalmaneser I, Shaman, Shang Dynasty, Shapur I, Sheba, Shechem, Short chronology, Sibi, Sichuan, Sicily, Siddhartha Gautama, Silk Road, Silla, Sima Qian, Sinai Peninsula, Sippar, Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, Skandagupta, Slavery, Social stratification, Socrates, Somalia, Source text, South Arabia, South Arabian, South Asia, South India, Southeast Asia, Spahbod, Spain, Spear, Spring and Autumn Annals, Spring and Autumn Period, Sramana, Srivijaya, StBoT, Stone Age, Sudan, Suetonius, Sumer, Sumerian Renaissance, Sumerian language, Sumerians, Sunga Empire, Surena, Susa, Syria, Syro-Hittite states, Tacitus, Tale of the shipwrecked sailor, Tamil people, Taoism, Tarascan state, Taurica, Taxila, Tay Nguyen, Tell, Teotihuacan, Term, Terracotta Army, Thalassocracy, The Americas, The Balkans in classical antiquity, The Secret History of the Mongols, Theatre, Theodosius I, Thermae, Third Punic War, Thomas Aquinas, Thrace, Three-age system, Three Kingdoms, Three Kingdoms of Korea, Thucydides, Tiberius, Tiglath-Pileser I, Tiglath-Pileser III, Tigris, Timeline of Ancient history, Titus, Toltec, Trade, Tragedy, Trajan, Tribal societies, Trieu Dynasty, Trojan War, Tukulti-Ninurta II, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tutelary, Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre (Lebanon), Ubaid period, Ugarit, Ukraine, Undley bracteate, Unified Silla, United States, University of Karachi, Upper Paleolithic, Urartu, Uruk, Uruk period, Văn Lang, Valens, Valerian, Vedas, Vedic period, Vietnam, Viking, Viking Age, Villanovan, Villanovan culture, Volcano, Wa (Japan), Wadi, Warfare, Warring States Period, Warrior, Washington, DC, Washukanni, Wei Dynasty, Western Desert, Western Europe, Western Hemisphere, Western Iranian languages, Western Roman Emperor, Western Roman Empire, Western culture, Western world, Wheel, White Huns, Will Durant, Wood, Wootz steel, World history, Writing, Wu (state), Xi'an, Yamataikoku, Yangtze River, Year of the four emperors, Yellow River, Yemen, Yueban, Zalpa, Zalpuwa, Zapotec civilization, Zeno (emperor), Zeno of Citium, Zhejiang, Zhengzhou, Zhou Dynasty, Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC), Zhou dynasty, Zilpah, Zoroastrianism, Zoscales,

Ancient history is the study of the written past^[1] from the beginning of recorded human history in the Old World until the Early Middle Ages^[2] in Europe.

Additional info

Đông Sơn culture

The Đông Sơn culture was a prehistoric Bronze Age culture that was centered at the Red River Valley of northern Vietnam. Its influence flourished to other parts of Southeast Asia, including the Indo-Malayan Archipelago from about 1000 BC to 1 BC.^[1]

A Short History of Pakistan

A Short History of Pakistan is an edited book published by University of Karachi Press and comprises four volumes. The book is edited by Prof Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi and provides a comprehensive account of the history of the Pakistan region and its people from the prehistory leading to the creation of Pakistan. Complete set of four volumes are sequentially titled as, Book One: Pre-Muslim Period by Ahmad Hasan Dani; Book Two: Muslim Rule under the Sultans by M. Kabir; Book Three: The Mughul Empire by Sh. A. Rashid; and, Book Four: Alien Rule and the Rise of Muslim Nationalism by M. A. Rahim et al.

Ab Urbe Condita (book)

Ab urbe condita libri, often shortened to just Ab urbe condita, is a monumental history of ancient Rome written in the Latin language by Titus Livius, an ancient Roman historian. The work covers the time from the stories of Aeneas, the earliest legendary period from before the city's founding in c. 753 BC, to Livy's own times in the reign of the emperor, Augustus. The Latin-language title can be literally translated as "Books from the city having been founded" but more typically "from the city's founding" or "from the foundation of the city" is used. Less literally it is referred to in English as History of Rome. The last year covered by Livy is 745 AUC, or 9 BC,^[1] the death of Drusus. About 25% of the work survives.^[2]

Abrahamic religion

Abrahamic religions (also known as Abrahamic faiths, Abrahamic traditions, religions of Abraham and semitic religions^[1]) has historically and traditionally been used to designate the world's three primary monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, emphasizing their common origin and values. Recently, some have included the Bahá'í Faith, founded by Baha’u’llah in 1863^[2] and certain smaller religions. For some 1,300 years their histories and thought have been intertwined. They are considered inextricably linked to one another because of a 'family likeness' and a certain commonality in theology.^[3] They are faiths that recognize a spiritual tradition identified with Abraham.^[4]^[5]^[6] However, relationships among them have varied from time and place and have often been characterized by mistrust, hatred^[7] and even war/persecution (e.g., the Muslim conquests, the Crusades, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the Inquisition). Phrased another way, the sacred narratives of all four of these religions feature many of the same figures, histories and places in each, although they often present them with slightly different roles, perspectives and meanings.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture is the procedure of inserting and manipulating filiform needles into various points on the body to relieve pain or for therapeutic purposes.^[3] The word acupuncture comes from the Latin acus, "needle", and pungere, "to prick". In Standard Chinese, acupuncture is called 针砭 (zhēnbiān), or a related word, 针灸 (zhēnjiǔ), which refers to acupuncture together with moxibustion.^[4] According to traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture points are situated on meridians along which qi (a "life energy"), flows. Modern acupuncture texts present them as ideas that are useful in clinical practice and continue to inform the practice of acupuncture,^[5]^[6] but there is no evidence to support their existence and they have not been reconciled with contemporary knowledge about biology, physics or chemistry.^[7]^[8]

Adulis

Adulis is an archeological site in the Northern Red Sea region of Eritrea, about 30 miles south of Massawa. It was the port of the Kingdom of Aksum, located on the coast of the Red Sea. Adulis Bay is named after the port. It is thought that the modern town of Zula may be the Adulis of Aksumite times, as Zula may reflect the native name for the Greek "Adulis."

Aegean Sea

The Aegean Sea (Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος, Egeo Pelagos [eˈʝeo ˈpelaɣos](

listen); Turkish: Ege Denizi) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.

Aerodynamics

Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much theory shared between them. Aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to all gases. Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. Typical properties calculated for a flow field include velocity, pressure, density and temperature as a function of position and time. By defining a control volume around the flow field, equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy can be defined and used to solve for the properties. The use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximation and wind tunnel experimentation form the scientific basis for heavier-than-air flight.

Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country in South-Central Asia. It is variously described as being located within Central Asia,^[5]^[6] South Asia,^[7]^[8] or the Middle East.^[9] It is bordered by Iran in the west, Pakistan in the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.

Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area.^[2] With a billion people (as of 2009, see table) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.72% of the World's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Not counting the disputed territory of Western Sahara, there are 53 countries, including Madagascar and various island groups, associated with the continent.

African Blackwood

African Blackwood or Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon) is a flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, native to seasonally dry regions of Africa from Senegal east to Eritrea and south to the Transvaal in South Africa.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.

Ahmad Hasan Dani

Ahmad Hassan Dani (Urdu: احمد حسن دانی) FRAS, SI, HI (20 June 1920 – 26 January 2009), was an eminent Pakistani archaeologist, historian, and linguist. He was among the foremost authorities on Central Asian and South Asian archaeology and history.^[1] He introduced archaeology as a discipline in higher education in Pakistan and Bangladesh.^[2] Throughout his career, Dani held various academic positions and international fellowships, apart from conducting archaeological excavations and research. He is particularly known for archaeological work on pre-Indus Civilization and Gandhara sites in Northern Pakistan. He was also the recipient of various civil awards in Pakistan and abroad. As a prolific linguist, he was able to speak 35 local and international languages and dialects.^[3]

Akkadian language

Akkadian (lišānum akkadītum, 𒀝𒂵𒌈 ak.ka.dû) (also Accadian, Assyro-Babylonian^[1]) is an extinct Semitic language (part of the greater Afroasiatic language family) that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian, an unrelated language isolate. The name of the language is derived from the city of Akkad, a major center of Mesopotamian civilization.

Al-Hirah

Al Hīra (Arabic,الحيرة) was an ancient city located south of al-Kufah in south-central Iraq. It was a significant city in pre-Islamic Arab history. Originally a military encampment, in the 5th and 6th centuries CE it became the capital of the Lakhmids.

Alaric I

Alaric I (Alareiks in the original Gothic; Alarik or Alarich in modern Germanic languages; Alaricus in Latin; and Alarico in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish), was likely born about 370 on an island named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube in present day Romania. He was king of the Visigoths from 395–410 and the first Germanic leader to take the city of Rome. Having originally desired to settle his people in the Roman Empire, he finally sacked the city, marking the decline of imperial power in the west.

Alexander III of Macedon

Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC), popularly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, Mégas Aléxandros), was a Greek^i[›] King of Macedon who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander received a classical Greek education under the tutorship of famed philosopher Aristotle, succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon to the throne in 336 BC after the King was assassinated, and died thirteen years later at the age of 32. Although both Alexander's reign and empire were short-lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for centuries. Alexander is one of the most famous figures of antiquity, and is remembered for his tactical ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek civilization into the East.

Alexander the Great

Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC), popularly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, Mégas Aléxandros), was a Greek^i[›] king (basileus) of Macedon who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander received a classical Greek education under the tutorship of famed philosopher Aristotle, succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon to the throne in 336 BC after the King was assassinated, and died thirteen years later at the age of 32. Although both Alexander's reign and empire were short-lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for centuries. Alexander is one of the most famous figures of antiquity, and is remembered for his tactical ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek civilization into the East.

Amarna Period

The Amarna Period was an era of Egyptian history during the latter half of the Eighteenth Dynasty when the royal residence of the pharaoh and his queen was shifted to Akhetaten ('Horizon of the Aten') in what is now modern-day Amarna. It was marked by the reign of Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC) in order to reflect the dramatic change of Egypt's polytheistic religion into one where a sun-god Aten was solely worshipped. The Egyptian pantheon of gods and goddesses were restored under Akhenaten's successor. Other rulers of this period include Amenhotep III, Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb.

Amorite

Amorite (Sumerian 𒈥𒌅 MAR.TU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’^emōrî אמורי) refers to a Semitic people^[1]^[2] who occupied large parts of Mesopotamia from at least the second half of the third millennium BC. The term Amurru refers to them, as well as to their principal deity.

An Dương Vương

An Duong Vuong (安陽王) is the title of Thục Phán (蜀泮), who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Âu Lạc from 257 to 207 BCE, after defeating the state of Văn Lang and uniting the two tribes Âu Việt and Lạc Việt. His longevity, said to have been approximately 100 years, is quite debatable.

Ancient Africa

Phoenician traders arrived on the North African coast around 900 BC and established Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) around 800 BC. By the sixth century BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa (east of Cherchell in Algeria). From their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements (called emporia in Greek) along the North African coast; these settlements eventually served as market towns as well as anchorages. Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda) are among the towns of Carthaginian origin on the coast of present-day Algeria.

Ancient China

Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
Naval history

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC^[1] with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia.^[2] Its history occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. Ancient Egypt reached its pinnacle during the New Kingdom, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this late period, and the rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province.^[3]

Ancient Egyptian technology

The characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships, unknown again until modern engineering. Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery was mass produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the chariot in the sixteenth century B.C. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is the civilisation belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries, at first under Athenian leadership successfully repelling the military threat of Persian invasion. The Athenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC.

Ancient Greek technology

Ancient Greek technology developed at an unprecedented speed during the 5th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period, and beyond. Inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks such as the gear, screw, rotary mills, screw press, bronze casting techniques, water clock, water organ, torsion catapult and the use of steam to operate some experimental machines and toys. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Greek period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war. However, peaceful uses are shown by their early development of the watermill, a device which pointed to further exploitation on a large scale under the Romans. They developed surveying and mathematics to an advanced state, and many of their technical advances were published by philosophers like Archimedes and Hero.

Ancient Greek technology and innovation

Ancient Iranian peoples

Ancient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. They remain dominant throughout Classical Antiquity in Scythia and Persia.

Ancient Near East

The Ancient Near East refers to early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and northeastern Syria), ancient Egypt, ancient Iran (Elam, Media and Persia), Armenia, Anatolia (modern Turkey) and the Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Cyprus). As such, it is a term widely employed in the fields of Near Eastern archaeology and ancient history. It begins with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BCE, though the date it ends varies: either covering the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the region, until the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE or Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, or until the conquest by the Islamic Caliphate in the 7th century CE.

Ancient Olympic Games

The Olympic Games (Ancient Greek: τὰ Ολύμπια - ta Olympia; Modern Greek: Ὀλυμπιακοὶ Ἀγῶνες (Katharevousa), Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες (Dimotiki) - Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of athletic competitions held for representatives of various city-states of Ancient Greece. Records indicate that they began in 776 BC in Olympia, Greece. They were celebrated until 393 AD. when an earthquake destroyed Olympia^[1] The Games were usually held every four years, or olympiad, as the unit of time came to be known. During a celebration of the Games, an Olympic Truce was enacted to enable athletes to travel from their countries to Olympia in safety. The prizes for the victors were olive wreaths, palm branches, sometimes even food for life. The ancient Olympics were rather different from the modern Games. There were fewer events, and only free men who spoke Greek could compete (even though a woman is also mentioned as a winner). Athletes from any country or city (famous athletes from as far as Rome and Armenia are mentioned) were allowed to participate. The Games were always held at Olympia, as with the Cotswold Olimpick Games, instead of moving around to different places for each separate Olympic festival as is the case in the modern Olympics.^[2]

Ancient Vietnam

The history of Vietnam begins around 2,700 years ago. Successive dynasties based in China ruled Vietnam directly for most of the period from 207 BC until 938 when Vietnam regained its independence.^[1] Vietnam remained a tributary state to its larger neighbor China for much of its history but repelled invasions by the Chinese as well as three invasions by the Mongols between 1255 and 1285.^[2] Emperor Trần Nhân Tông later diplomatically submitted Vietnam to a tributary of the Yuan to avoid further conflicts. The independent period temporarily ended in the middle to late 19th century, when the country was colonized by France (see French Indochina). During World War II, Imperial Japan expelled the French to occupy Vietnam, though they retained French administrators during their occupation. After the war, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule but ultimately failed in the First Indochina War. The Geneva Accords partitioned the country in two with a promise of democratic election to reunite the country.

Ancient art

Arts of the ancient world refers to the many types of art that were in the cultures of ancient societies, such as those of ancient China, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome.

Ancient art history

Arts of the ancient world refers to the many types of art that were in the cultures of ancient societies, such as those of ancient China, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome.

Ancient literature

The history of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC. The earliest literary authors known by name are Ptahhotep and Enheduanna, dating to ca. the 24th and 23rd centuries BC, respectively.

Ancient maritime history

Maritime history dates back hundreds of years. In ancient maritime history, the first boats are presumed to have been dugout canoes which were developed independently by various stone age populations. In ancient history, various vessels were used for coastal fishing and travel.

Ancient technology

During the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technology was the result from advances in engineering in ancient times. These advances in the history of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.

Angeln

Modern Angeln, also known as Anglia (German and English: Angeln, Danish: Angel, Latin: Anglia), is a peninsula in Southern Schleswig in the northern Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, protruding into the Bay of Kiel. It is separated from the neighbouring peninsula of Schwansen (Danish: Svans or Svansø) by the Schlei inlet, and from the Danish island of Als by the Flensburger Förde ("Firth of Flensburg"). Whether ancient Angeln conformed to these borders is uncertain. It may have been somewhat larger; however, the ancient sources mainly concur that it included the territory of modern Angeln.

Angles

The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the ancestral cultural region of Angeln, a district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles were one of the main groups that settled in Britain in the post-Roman period, founding several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the name "England".

Anglo-Saxon

Anglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066.^[1] The Benedictine monk, Bede, identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes:^[2]

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The annals were initially created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. Multiple manuscript copies were made and distributed to monasteries across England and were independently updated. In one case, the chronicle was still being actively updated in 1154.

Anglo-Saxons

Anno Domini

Anno Domini (abbreviated as AD or A.D., sometimes found in the irregular form Anno Domine) and Before Christ (abbreviated as BC or B.C.) are designations used to number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The calendar era to which they refer is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus, with AD denoting years after the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of this epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC.

Antigonus I

Antigonus I Monophthalmus (Greek: Ἀντίγονος ὁ Μονόφθαλμος, "Antigonus the One-eyed", 382 BC - 301 BC) son of Philip from Elimeia, was a Macedonian nobleman, general, and satrap under Alexander the Great. During his early life he served under Philip II, and he was a major figure in the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, declaring himself king in 306 BC and establishing the Antigonid dynasty.

Anyang

Anyang (simplified Chinese: 安阳; traditional Chinese: 安陽; pinyin: Ānyáng; Postal map spelling: Anyang) is a prefecture-level city in Henan province, People's Republic of China. The northernmost city in Henan, Anyang borders Puyang to the east, Hebi and Xinxiang to the south, and the provinces of Shanxi and Hebei to its west and north respectively.

Aqueduct (Roman)

The ancient Romans typically built numerous aqueducts to serve any large city in their empire, as well as many small towns and industrial sites. The city of Rome itself, being the largest city, had the largest concentration of aqueducts, with water being supplied by eleven aqueducts constructed over a period of 500 years. Scholars can even predict the size of the city by its water supply. They served potable water and supplied the numerous baths and fountains in the city, as well as finally being emptied into the sewers, where they performed their last function in removing waste matter. The methods of construction are well described by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura written in the first century BC. His book would have been of great assistance to Frontinus, a general who was appointed in the late first century AD to administer the many aqueducts of Rome. He discovered a discrepancy between the intake and supply of water caused by illegal pipes inserted into the channels to divert the water, and reported on his efforts to improve and regulate the system to the emperor Trajan at the end of the first century AD. The report of his investigation is known as De aquaeductu. In addition to masonry aqueducts, the Romans built many more leats — channels excavated in the ground, usually with a clay lining. They could serve industrial sites such as gold mines, lead and tin mines, forges, water-mills and baths or thermae. Leats were very much cheaper than the masonry design, but all aqueducts required good surveying to ensure a regular and smooth flow of water.

Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻArab), Arabia, Arabistan,^[1] and the Arabian subcontinent^[2] is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. The area is an important part of the Middle East and plays a critically important geopolitical role because of its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.

Arabia Felix

Happy Arabia (representing Latin Arabia felix and Greek Eudaimon Arabia) was the name previously used by geographers to describe the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, restricted to modern-day Yemen.^[1]

Arabian Peninsula

Arabian peninsula

Aramaean

The Aramaeans (also Arameans) are a West Semitic semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who lived in upper Mesopotamia (Biblical Aram). Aramaeans never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. Yet to these Aramaeans befell the privilege of imposing their language and culture upon the entire Near East and beyond, fostered in part by the mass relocations enacted by successive empires, including the Assyrians and Babylonians. Scholars even have used the term "Aramaization" for the process by which Assyro-Babylonian peoples became Aramaic-speaking.^[1]

Aramaic

Aramaic is a Semitic language belonging to the Afroasiatic language family. Within this family, Aramaic belongs to the Semitic subfamily, and more specifically, is a part of the Northwest Semitic group of languages, which also includes Canaanite languages such as Hebrew and Phoenician. Aramaic script was widely adopted for other languages and is ancestral to both the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets.

Archaeological field survey

Archaeological field survey is the methodological process by which archaeologists (often landscape archaeologists) collect information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures across a large area (e.g. typically in excess of one hectare, and quite often in excess of many km²). It may be: (a) intrusive or non-intrusive, depending on the needs of the survey team (and the risk of destroying archaeological evidence if intrusive methods are used) and; (b) extensive or intensive depending on the types of research questions being asked of the landscape in question. Surveys can be a practical way to decide whether or not to carry out an excavation (as a way of recording the basic details of a possible site) and may also be ends in themselves, as they produce important information about past human activities in a regional context.

Archaeology

Archaeology (sometimes written archæology) or archeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia – ἀρχαῖος, arkhaīos, "ancient"; and -λογία, -logiā, "-logy") is the science and humanity^[1] that studies historical human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material culture and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, and landscapes. Archaeology aims to understand humankind through these humanistic endeavors.^[1] In the United States the field is commonly considered to be a subset of anthropology, along with physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology,^[2] whilst in British and European universities, archaeology is considered as a separate discipline.

Archaic Greece

The archaic period in Greece (800 BCE – 480 BCE) is a period of Ancient Greek history. The term originated in the 18th century and has been standard since. This term arose from the study of Greek art, where it refers to styles mainly of surface decoration and plastique, falling in time between Geometric Art and the art of Classical Greece. As it is transitional to the latter it is considered "archaic." Since the Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages, and saw significant advancements in political theory, and the rise of democracy, philosophy, theatre, poetry, as well as the revitalization of the written language (which had been lost during the Dark Ages), the term archaic was extended to these aspects as well.

Archaic Homo sapiens

Archaic Homo sapiens is a loosely defined term used to describe a number of varieties of Homo, as opposed to anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens), in the period beginning 500,000 years ago. The term is typically taken to include Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo neanderthalensis and sometimes Homo antecessor.^[1]

Aristotle

Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings constitute a first at creating a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.

Ark of the Covenant

The Ark of the Covenant (Hebrew: אָרוֹן הָבְרִית‎ Ārōn Hāb’rīt [modern pron. Aron Habrit]; Arabic: تابوت العهد‎ Tābūt Al-ʿahd) is a vessel described in the Bible as containing the Tablets of Stone on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed, along with Aaron's rod and manna. According to the Pentateuch, the Ark was built at the command of God, in accord with Moses' prophetic vision on Mount Sinai (Exodus 25:10-16). God was said to have communicated with Moses "from between the two cherubim" on the Ark's cover (Exodus 25:22). The Ark and its sanctuary were considered "the beauty of Israel" (Lamentations 2:1). Rashi and some Midrashim suggest that there were two arks - a temporary one made by Moses himself, and a later one constructed by Bezalel.^[1]

Armenian Highland

The Armenian Highland (Armenian: Հայկական Բարձրավանդակ; Russian: Армянское нагорье; also known as the Armenian Upland, Armenian plateau, or simply Armenia^[1]) is the central-most and highest of three land-locked plateaus that together form the northern sector of the Middle East.^[1] To its west is the Anatolian plateau which rises slowly from the lowland coast of the Aegean Sea and rises to an average height of 3,000 feet.^[1] In Armenia, the average height rises dramatically to 3,000 to 7,000 feet.^[1] To its southeast is the Iranian plateau, where the elevation drops rapidly to an average 2,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level.^[1]

Arthur Llewellyn Basham

Professor Arthur Llewellyn Basham (24 May 1914 – 27 January 1986) was a noted historian and indologist and author of a number of books. It is perhaps not a mere coincidence that two of the most renowned living historians of early India, Professors R.S. Sharma and Romila Thapar, received their doctoral blessings from Basham (who had guided a generation of historians from India at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London in the 1950s and the 1960s) and were either closely associated with or inspired by D.D. Kosambi.^[1]

Arthur Rimbaud

Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud (pronounced /ræmˈboʊ/, French pronunciation: [aʁtyʁ ʁɛ̃ˈbo]; 20 October 1854 – 10 November 1891) was a French poet, born in Charleville, Ardennes. As part of the decadent movement, his influence on modern literature, music and art has been enduring and pervasive. He produced his best known works while still in his late teens—Victor Hugo described him at the time as "an infant Shakespeare"—and gave up creative writing altogether before he reached 21. He remained a prolific letter-writer all his life. Rimbaud was known to have been a French Libertine and a restless soul, traveling extensively on three continents before his death from cancer less than a month after his 37th birthday.

Artifact (archaeology)

An artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human. In archaeology, an artifact is an object recovered by some archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. Examples include stone tools such as projectile points, pottery vessels, metal objects such as buttons or guns, and items of personal adornment such as jewelery and clothing. Other examples include bone that show signs of human modification, fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food.

Ashoka

Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोकः, IAST: Aśokaḥ, IPA: [aˈɕoːkə(h^ə)], 304 BC – 232 BC), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra. He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which no one in his dynasty had conquered starting from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar, India). ^[1] He embraced Buddhism from the prevalent Vedic tradition after witnessing the mass deaths of the war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka in human history is often referred to as the emperor of all ages. Ashoka was a devotee of ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka- the Emperor of Emperors Ashoka.

Ashoka the Great

Ashtadhyayi

Pāṇini (Dēvanāgarī: पाणिनि; a patronymic meaning "descendant of Paṇi") was an Ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian from Pushkalavati, Gandhara (fl. 4th century BCE^[1]^[2]).

Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal (Akkadian: Aššur-bāni-apli, "Ashur is creator of an heir";^[1] 685 B.C. – c. 627 B.C.),^[2] also spelled Assurbanipal or Ashshurbanipal, was the son of Esarhaddon and the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (668 B.C. – c. 627 B.C.).^[2] He established the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East,^[3] the Library of Ashurbanipal, which survives in part today at Nineveh.

Asia

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the earth's total surface area (or 29.9% of its land area) and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population.

Asoka

Assab

Assab (or Aseb, anciently Avalites, Ge'ez ዓሳብ ʿAsab) is a port city in the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. In 1989, it had a population of 39,600. Assab possesses an oil refinery which was shut down in 1997 for economical reasons. Nearby is the site of the ancient city of Arsinoe.