Abu Rayhan Biruni

'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk, 'Aja'ib al-makhluqat wa-ghara'ib al-mawjudat, A. I. 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ʿAbd al-Hamīd ibn Turk (fl. 830), known also as ʿAbd al-Hamīd ibn Wase ibn Turk Jili was a ninth century Muslim mathematician. Not much is known about his biography. The two records of him, one by the Persian Ibn Nadim and the other by al-Qifti are not identical. However al-Qifi mentions his name as ʿAbd al-Hamīd ibn Wase ibn Turk Jili. Jili means from Gilan.^[1]

'Aja'ib al-makhluqat wa-ghara'ib al-mawjudat

ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt (Arabic: عجائب المخلوقات و غرائب الموجودات‎, meaning Marvels of creatures and Strange things existing) is an important work of cosmography by Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud Abu Yahya al-Qazwini who was born in Qazwin year 600 (AH)/1203.

Abū Alī ibn Sīnā

Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā', known as Abū Alī Sīnā^[4][5] (Persian: ابوعلی سینا) or, more commonly, Ibn Sīnā^[6] (Arabic: ابن سینا‎), and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna (Greek: Aβιτζιανός, Abitzianos),^[7] (c. 980 - 1037) was a Persian^[8] polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time.^[9] He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist and teacher. ^[10]

Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī

Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī (1029–1087), Latinized as Arzachel, was a leading Arab mathematician and the foremost astronomer of his time. He lived in Toledo in Castile, Al-Andalus (now Spain).

Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam

Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam ibn Muḥammad ibn Shujā (c. 850 – c. 930) Abu Kamil (Arabic: ابو كامل‎) for short, was an Egyptian Muslim mathematician during the Islamic Golden Age. He has also been called al-Hasib al-Misri—literally, "the Egyptian calculator."

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī (Arabic: ابوریحان محمد بن احمد بیرونی‎), often known as Alberuni, Al Beruni or variants, (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm (now in Uzbekistan), died 13 December 1048 in Ghazni, today's Afghanistan) was a Persian scholar and polymath of the 11th century.^[1][2]

Abū Sahl al-Qūhī

Abū Sahl Wayjan ibn Rustam al-Qūhī (sometimes al-Kūhī), was a Persian ^[1] mathematician, physicist and astronomer. Quhi was from Kuh (or Quh), an area in Tabaristan, and flourished in Baghdad in the 10th century. He is considered one of the greatest Muslim geometers.

Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī

Abū al-Hasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412 in Baza, Spain – 1486 in Béja, Tunisia) was an Arab Muslim mathematician and an Islamic scholar specializing in Islamic inheritance jurisprudence. He is known for being one of the most influential voices in algebraic notation since antiquity and for taking "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism." He wrote numerous books on arithmetic and algebra, including al-Tabsira fi'lm al-hisab (Arabic: التبصير في علم الحساب‎ "Clarification of the science of arithmetic").^[1]

Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī (Arabic: ابوریحان محمد بن احمد بیرونی‎), often known as Alberuni, Al Beruni or variants, (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm (now in Uzbekistan), died 13 December 1048 in Ghazni, today's Afghanistan) was a Persian scholar and polymath of the 11th century.^[1][2]

Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī

Abul Wafa Buzjani (10 June 940 – 1 July 998)^[1] (Persian: ابوالوفا بوزجانی), extended name: Abū al-Wafāʾ Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Ismāʿīl ibn al-ʿAbbās al-Būzjānī (Persian: ابوالوفا محمد بن محمد بن یحیی بن اسماعیل بن العباس البوزجانی) was a Persian mathematician and astronomer. He was born in Buzhgan, (now Torbat-e Jam) in Iran.

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi

'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Persian: عبدالرحمن صوفی; December 7, 903 – May 25, 986) was a Persian astronomer also known as 'Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi, or 'Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn, 'Abdul Rahman Sufi, 'Abdurrahman Sufi and known in the west as Azophi; the lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet 12621 Alsufi are named after him. Al-Sufi published his famous Book of Fixed Stars in 964, describing much of his work, both in textual descriptions and pictures.

Abdus Salam

Mohammad Abdus Salam^[2] (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) (January 29, 1926; Jhang, Punjab, British India – November 21, 1996; Oxford, England)^[3] was a Pakistani theoretical physicist, astrophysicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work in Electro-Weak Theory. Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg shared the prize for this discovery. Salam holds the distinction of being the first Pakistani and Muslim Nobel Laureate. As of today, Salam is considered to be one of the most influential scientist and physicist in his country.

Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi

Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi was an Arab mathematician who was active in Damascus^[1] and Baghdad.^[2]. His surname indicates, that he was a copyist of Euclids works. He wrote the earliest surviving book on the positional use of the Arabic numerals, around 952. It is especially notable for its treatment of decimal fractions, and that it showed how to carry out calculations without deletions.

Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi

Abu Mahmood Khujandi or Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi (Persian: ابومحمود خجندی) was a Persian astronomer and mathematician who lived in the late 10th century and helped build an observatory near the city of Ray (near today's Tehran) in Iran. He was born in Khujand (now Tajikistan) in about 940, and died in 1000. A bronze bust of the astronomer is present in a park in modern-day Khujand.

Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (Abdallah ibn Abi Quhafa) (Arabic: أبو بكر الصديق or عبد الله بن أبي قحافة; Transliteration: Abū Bakr aṣ-Ṣiddīq or 'Abdullāh bin Abī Quhāfah, Turkish: Ebu Bekir, c. 573 CE – 23 August 634/13 AH)^[1] was Muhammad's father-in-law, one of the closest companions and adviser. Abu Bakar succeeded to the Prophet's political and administrative functions, thereby initiating the office of the caliphate.^[2] He was also the first convert to Islam, after Khadija, Muhammad's first wife.^[2][3] Muhammad conferred on him the title as-Siddiq, the veracious, for his power to discern the truth.^[4][5] Upon Muhammad's death he became the first Muslim ruler (632–634), regarded in Sunni Islam as the first of the Rashidun (righteously guided Caliphs).^[6] In Shia Islam, he is, however, regarded as a usurper and political opportunist. His caliphate lasted two years and three months, during which time he consolidated the Muslim state. Upon the death of Muhammad, some tribes rebelled, and in return he fought the Ridda wars against these Arab tribes to establish Islamic rule over all of Arabia. He also invaded Sassanid Persian and Byzantine Empire conquering the lands of Syria and Iraq.^[7] Abu Bakr is also well known for collecting the verses of the Quran and putting them into the final book read by Muslims today. Many Hafiz (a person who commits the Quran to memory) had died in the previous wars so he was concerned about the preservation of the Quran. He also stopped the Quran being translated into different versions of Arabic.^{[citation needed]}

Abulcasis

Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi(936 – 1013), (Arabic: أبو القاسم بن خلف بن العباس الزهراوي‎) also known in the West as Abulcasis, was an Andalusian Arab physician, surgeon, chemist, cosmetologist, and scientist. He is considered the father of modern surgery,^[1] and as Islam's greatest medieval surgeon, whose comprehensive medical texts shaped both Islamic and European surgical procedures up until the Renaissance. His greatest contribution to history is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices.

Acceleration

In physics, and more specifically kinematics, acceleration is the change in velocity over time.^[1] Because velocity is a vector, it can change in two ways: a change in magnitude and/or a change in direction. In one dimension, i.e. a line, acceleration is the rate at which something speeds up or slows down. However, as a vector quantity, acceleration is also the rate at which direction changes.^[2][3] Acceleration has the dimensions L T⁻². In SI units, acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (m/s²).

Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country in South-Central Asia. It is variously described as being located within Central Asia,^[5][6] South Asia,^[7][8] or the Middle East.^[9] It is bordered by Iran in the west, Pakistan in the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.

Age of the Earth

Modern geologists and geophysicists accept that the age of the Earth is around 4.54 billion years (4.54 × 10⁹ years ± 1%).^[1][2][3] This age has been determined by radiometric age dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples. The Sun, by comparison, is about 4.57 billion years old, about 30 million years older.

Ahmad Hasan Dani

Ahmad Hassan Dani (Urdu: احمد حسن دانی) FRAS, SI, HI (20 June 1920 – 26 January 2009), was an eminent Pakistani archaeologist, historian, and linguist. He was among the foremost authorities on Central Asian and South Asian archaeology and history.^[1] He introduced archaeology as a discipline in higher education in Pakistan and Bangladesh.^[2] Throughout his career, Dani held various academic positions and international fellowships, apart from conducting archaeological excavations and research. He is particularly known for archaeological work on pre-Indus Civilization and Gandhara sites in Northern Pakistan. He was also the recipient of various civil awards in Pakistan and abroad. As a prolific linguist, he was able to speak 35 local and international languages and dialects.^[3]

Ahmad Shah Massoud

Ahmad Shah Massoud (احمد شاه مسعود- Aḥmad Šāh Mas‘ūd; September 1953 – September 9, 2001) was a Kabul University engineering student turned military leader who played a leading role in driving the Soviet army out of Afghanistan, earning him the nickname Lion of Panjshir. His followers call him Āmir Sāhib-e Shahīd (Our Martyred Commander). An ethnic Tajik, Massoud was a moderate of the anti-Soviet resistance leaders.^[1]

Ahmed ibn Yusuf

Ahmed ibn Yusuf ibn Ibrahim ibn Tammam al-siddiq Al-Baghdadi also known as Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Yusuf and Ahmed ibn Yusuf al-misri (835 - 912) was an Arab mathematician, like his father Yusuf ibn Ibrahim (Arabic يوسف بن ابراهيم الصدَيق البغدادي ).

Alī ibn Ahmad al-Nasawī

ʿAlī ibn Aḥmad al-Nasawī (c. 1010 possibly in Nasa, Khurasan – c. 1075 in Baghdad) was a Persian mathematician from Khurasan, Iran. He flourished under the Buwayhid sultan Majd al-dowleh, who died in 1029-30AD, and under his successor. He wrote a book on arithmetic in Persian, and then Arabic, entitled the "Satisfying (or Convincing) on Hindu Calculation" (al-muqni fi-l-hisab al Hindi). He also wrote on Archimedes's lemmata and Menelaus's theorem (Kitab al-ishba, or "satiation"). where he made corrections to The Lemmata as translated into Arabic by Thabit ibn Qurra, which was last revised by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.

Al-Abbās ibn Said al-Jawharī

Al-ʿAbbās ibn Saʿid al-Jawharī (c. 800 Baghdad? – c. 860 Baghdad?) was a geometer who worked at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad and for in a short time in Damascus where he made astronomical observations. His most important work was his Commentary on Euclid's Elements which contained nearly 50 additional propositions and an attempted proof of the parallel postulate.

Al-Azhar University

Al-Azhar University (pronounced "AZ-har", Arabic: جامعة الأزهر الشريف‎; Al-ʾAzhar al-Šarīf, "the Noble Azhar") in Egypt, founded in 970~972, is the chief centre of Arabic literature and Sunni Islamic learning in the world^[1] and the world's second oldest surviving degree granting university.^[2] It is associated with Al-Azhar Mosque in Islamic Cairo. The university's mission includes the propagation of Islamic religion and culture. To this end, its Islamic scholars (ulemas) render edicts (fatwas) on disputes submitted to them from all over the Sunni Islamic world regarding proper conduct for Muslim individuals or societies (a recent example being the clarification and thus prohibition of female genital cutting). Al-Azhar also trains Egyptian government appointed preachers in proselytization (da'wa).

Al-Beroni University

Al Beroni or Al Beruni University (Persian: دانشگاه البیرونی, Pashto: البیرونی پوهنتون) is a public university in Afghanistan. It was established in 1998 by Ahmad Shah Massoud. The university is named after Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī (Persian: ابوریحان محمد بن احمد بیرونی), a renowned polymath scholar who lived in 11th century Khorasan.

Al-Biruni (crater)

Al-Biruni is an impact crater that lies on the far side of the Moon, just beyond the eastern limb. This portion of the surface is sometimes brought into sight due to librations of the Moon, but due to its location the crater is viewed from the side. Al-Biruni lies to the south of the crater Joliot, and to the northeast of Goddard.

Al-Ghazali

Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111) (Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی), often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin,^[3][4] and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Sunni Islamic thought. He is considered a pioneer of the methods of doubt and skepticism,^[5] and in one of his major works, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he changed the course of early Islamic philosophy, shifting it away from an Islamic metaphysics influenced by ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and towards an Islamic philosophy based on cause-and-effect that was determined by God or intermediate angels, a theory now known as occasionalism.

Al-Hajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Matar

Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar (786–833 CE) was an Arab mathematician who first translated Euclid's Elements from Greek into Arabic. He made a second, improved, more concise translation for the Caliph al-Ma'mūn (813-833). Around 829, he translated Ptolemy's Almagest, which at that time had also been translated by Hunayn ibn Ishaq and Sahl al-Ṭabarī.

Al-Jahiz

Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ) (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (781 – December 868/January 869) was a famous Afro-Arab scholar of East African descent,^[4][5] the grandson of a Negro (Zanj) slave.^[6][7] He was an Arabic prose writer and author of works on Arabic literature, biology, zoology, history, early Islamic philosophy, Islamic psychology, Mu'tazili theology, and politico-religious polemics.

Al-Jayyani

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani, shortened to Al-Jayyani (989, Cordova, Al-Andalus – 1079, Jaen, Al-Andalus) was an Arab mathematician from Al-Andalus (in present-day Spain). Al-Jayyani wrote important commentaries on Euclid's Elements and he wrote the first treatise on spherical trigonometry in its modern form. Little is known about his life. Confusion exists over the identity of Al-Jayyani the scholar and Al-Jayyani the mathematician. It is unknown whether they are the same person.

Al-Jazari

Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī (1136-1206) (Arabic: أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري‎) was a prominent Arab polymath: an Islamic scholar, inventor, mechanical engineer, craftsman, artist, mathematician and astronomer from Diyarbakır, Turkey, who lived during the Islamic Golden Age (Middle Ages). He is best known for writing the Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya (Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices) in 1206, where he described fifty mechanical devices along with instructions on how to construct them.

Al-Karaji

Abū Bakr ibn Muḥammad ibn al Ḥusayn al-Karajī (or al-Karkhī) (c. 953 in Karaj or Karkh – c. 1029) was a 10th century Persian^[1] Muslim mathematician and engineer. His three major works are Al-Badi' fi'l-hisab (Wonderful on calculation), Al-Fakhri fi'l-jabr wa'l-muqabala (Glorious on algebra), and Al-Kafi fi'l-hisab (Sufficient on calculation).

Al-Khazini

Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini (Arabic: عبدالرحمن الخزيني‎) (flourished 1115–1130) was a scientist, astronomer, physicist, biologist, alchemist, mathematician and philosopher from Merv, then in the Khorasan province of Persia but now in Turkmenistan, who made important contributions to physics and astronomy.^[1] He is considered the greatest scholar from Merv.^[2]

Al-Kindi

Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī (Arabic: أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي‎) (c. 801–873 CE), also known to the West by the Latinized version of his name Alkindus, was an Arab Iraqi polymath:^[1] an Islamic philosopher, scientist, astrologer, astronomer, cosmologist, chemist, logician, mathematician, musician, physician, physicist, psychologist, and meteorologist.^[2] Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world,^[3] and as a pioneer in chemistry, cryptography, medicine, music theory, physics, psychology, and the philosophy of science.

Al-Mustansiriya University

Al-Mustansiriya University (Arabic,الجامعة المستنصرية) is one of the universities providing higher education in Baghdad, Iraq. It should not be confused with the historical institute with the same name, Mustansiriya School.

Al-Nayrizi

Abū’l-‘Abbās al-Faḍl ibn Ḥātim al-Nairīzī (أبو العباس الفضل بن حاتم النيريزي Latin name: Anaritius), was a 9th-10th century Persian mathematician and astronomer from Nayriz, a town near Shiraz, Fars, Iran.

Al-Saghani

Abu Hamid Ahmed ibn Mohammed al-Saghani al-Asturlabi (meaning the astrolabe maker of Saghan, near Merv) was a Persian astronomer and historian of science. He flourished in Baghdad, where he died in 990 AD.

Alchemy (Islam)

Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by Muslim scientists in the medieval Islamic world. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Persian word کيميا kimia.

Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by Muslim scientists in the medieval Islamic world. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Persian word کيميا kimia.

Algebra

Algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them, including terms, polynomials, equations and algebraic structures. Together with geometry, analysis, topology, combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the main branches of pure mathematics. The part of algebra called elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in secondary education and introduces the concept of variables representing numbers. Statements based on these variables are manipulated using the rules of operations that apply to numbers, such as addition. This can be done for a variety of reasons, including equation solving. Algebra is much broader than elementary algebra and studies what happens when different rules of operations are used and when operations are devised for things other than numbers. Addition and multiplication can be generalised and their precise definitions lead to structures such as groups, rings and fields.

Alhacen

Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: ابو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم, Persian: ابن هیثم, Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated)^[4] Alhazen) (965 in Basra - c. 1039 in Cairo) was a Persian^[5] or Arab^[6] scientist and polymath.^[7] He made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to anatomy, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, visual perception, and to science in general with his introduction of the scientific method. He is sometimes called al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra.^[8] He was also nicknamed Ptolemaeus Secundus ("Ptolemy the Second")^[9] or simply "The Physicist"^[10] in medieval Europe.

Ali

Badr – Banu Qaynuqa – Uhud – Banu Nadir – Trench – Banu Qurayza – Hudaybiyyah – Khaybar – Mu'tah – Mecca – Hunayn – Autas – Ta'if – Bassorah – Siffin – Nahrawan – Jamal

Ali Kuşçu

Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed known as Ali Qushji or Ali Kuscu(?, 1403 – 16 December 1474) was an astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist. He is best known for his development of an astronomical physics independent from natural philosophy and for providing empirical evidence for the Earth's motion in his treatise, Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, in addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous work Zij-i-Sultani and his efforts in founding Sahn-ı Seman University which is one of the first Ottoman universities.

Alidade

An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform a task. This task can be, for example, to draw a line on a plane table in the direction of the object or to measure the angle to the object from some reference point. Angles measured can be horizontal, vertical or in any chosen plane.

Alluvium

Alluvium (from the Latin, alluvius, from alluere, "to wash against") is loose, unconsolidated (not cemented together into a solid rock), soil or sediments, eroded, deposited, and reshaped by water in some form in a non-marine setting.^[1][2] Alluvium is typically made up of a variety of materials, including fine particles of silt and clay and larger particles of sand and gravel. When this loose alluvial material is deposited or cemented into a lithological unit, or lithified, it would be called an alluvial deposit.

Almanac

An almanac (also spelled almanack and almanach) is an annual publication containing tabular information in a particular field or fields often arranged according to the calendar. Astronomical data and various statistics are also found in almanacs, such as the times of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated festivals of churches, terms of courts, lists of all types, timelines, and more.

Almucantar

An Almucantar, also spelled almucantarat or almacantara, is a circle on the celestial sphere parallel to the horizon. Two stars that lie the same almucantar have the same altitude.

Amu Darya

The Amu Darya (from Persian: آمودریا - Āmūdaryā, lit. "Amu River"), in antiquity known as Oxus (Ὦξος) to Greeks and Romans or Vaksu to Indo-Aryans, is a major river in Central Asia. It is formed by the junction of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Irān and Tūrān.^[2]

An-Nisa

Sura An-Nisa (Arabic: سورة النساء, Sūratu an-Nisā, "The Women") ^[1] is the fourth chapter of the Qur'an, with 176 verses. It is a Medinan sura. It is the second longest chapter in the Qur'an before Al-i-Imran, and was recited after sura Al-Mumtahina.^{[citation needed]}

Analog computer

An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical,^[1] mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities incrementally, as their numerical values change.

Analytical dynamics

In classical mechanics, analytical dynamics, or more briefly dynamics, is concerned about the relationship between motion of bodies and its causes, namely the forces acting on the bodies and the properties of the bodies (particularly mass and moment of inertia). The foundation of modern day dynamics is Newtonian mechanics and its reformulation as Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics.^[1][2] The field has a long and important history, as remarked by Hamilton: